Jungian cognitive functions

Cognitive functions, also referred to as psychological functions, as described by Carl Jung in his book Psychological Types, are particular mental processes within a person's psyche that are present regardless of common circumstance.^[1] This is a concept that serves as one of the foundations for his theory on personality type. In his book, he noted four main psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. He introduced them with having either an internally focused (introverted) or externally focused (extraverted) tendency which he called "attitudes".^[2]

History[]

Jung originally conceived of the model in which four cognitive functions combine to form different psychological types. This was done in his work Psychological Types, published as the sixth volume in The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.^[3] Jung posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's psychological dynamics—the most developed function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary" and "inferior" functions. The four basic functions were thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. The concept of introversion and extraversion were also conceived by Jung and were used in conjunction with the four functions.

Psychological functions[]

The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:

• Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object."^[1] Consciously, in an extrovert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extroverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extroverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extroverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extroverted."^[1]
• Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject."^[1] Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value."^[1]

The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (the collective unconscious, or "processes inherent in the psyche"^[1]). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge.

The four basic psychological functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.

Thinking[]

According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung also made distinction between active and passive thinking: "The term 'thinking' should, in my view, be confined to the linking up of representations by means of a concept, where, in other words, an act of judgment prevails, whether such act be the product of one’s intentions or not. The faculty of directed thinking, I term 'intellect'. The faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term 'intellectual intuition'." The former, active thought, is what Jung considered a 'judging function'.^[1]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extroverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extroverts and introverts respectively. In Adler and Hull's translation of Jung's Psychological Types, Jung states:

"Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extroverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extroverted feelings in an introverted intellectual..."^[4]

Extraverted thinking[]

Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is objective (being extroverted). Extroverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; it is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.

"In accordance with his definition, we must picture a, man whose constant aim -- in so far, of course, as he is a [p. 435] pure type -- is to bring his total life-activities into relation with intellectual conclusions, which in the last resort are always orientated by objective data, whether objective facts or generally valid ideas. This type of man gives the deciding voice-not merely for himself alone but also on behalf of his entourage-either to the actual objective reality or to its objectively orientated, intellectual formula. By this formula are good and evil measured, and beauty and ugliness determined. All is right that corresponds with this formula; all is wrong that contradicts it; and everything that is neutral to it is purely accidental."^[2]

Introverted thinking[]

Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is subjective (being introverted).

"Just as Darwin might possibly represent the normal extroverted thinking type, so we might point to Kant as a counter-example of the normal introverted thinking type. The former speaks with facts; the latter appeals to the subjective factor. Darwin ranges over the wide fields of objective facts, while Kant restricts himself to a critique of knowledge in general. But suppose a Cuvier be contrasted with a Nietzsche: the antithesis becomes even sharper."^[3]

"The introverted thinking type is characterized by a priority of the thinking I have just described. Like his [p. 485] extroverted parallel, he is decisively influenced by ideas; these, however, have their origin, not in the objective data but in the subjective foundation. Like the extravert, he too will follow his ideas, but in the reverse direction: inwardly not outwardly. Intensity is his aim, not extensity. In these fundamental characters he differs markedly, indeed quite unmistakably from his extraverted parallel. Like every introverted type, he is almost completely lacking in that which distinguishes his counter type, namely, the intensive relatedness to the object." ^[2]

Feeling[]

Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection."^[1] Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervation's."^[1]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extroverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extroverts and introverts respectively, Jung's written words in Psychological Types support that interpretation by stating it explicitly:

"Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extroverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extroverted feelings in an introverted intellectual"[4]"

Extraverted feeling[]

Overall, extraverted feeling is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extroverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."^[2]

Introverted feeling[]

Introverted feeling is often seen as "very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed." Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers: "[Introverted feeling] is continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult to access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defence."

Sensation[]

Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."^[1]

Extraverted sensation[]

Extroverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in a realistic and concretist way. Since an extraverted sensors type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, he often has a good sense of aesthetic — whether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing.^[5]

Introverted sensation[]

Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extroverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. Jung wrote that "the subject perceives the same things as everybody else, only, he never stops at the purely objective effect, but concerns himself with the subjective perception released by the objective stimulus. Subjective perception differs remarkably from the objective. It is either not found at all in the object, or, at most, merely suggested by it[...] Subjective sensation apprehends the background of the physical world rather than its surface. The decisive thing is not the reality of the object, but the reality of the subjective factor, i.e. the primordial images, which in their totality represent a psychic mirror-world. It is a mirror, however, with the peculiar capacity of representing the present contents of consciousness not in their known and customary form but in a certain sense sub specie aeternitatis, somewhat as a million-year old consciousness might see them. Such a consciousness would see the becoming and the passing of things beside their present and momentary existence, and not only that, but at the same time it would also see that Other, which was before their becoming and will be after their passing hence."^[2]

Introverted sensation is sometimes said to compare phenomena with past experiences, however this has never been said by Jung himself; it is a common internet misconception.

Introverted sensation also perceives things in a very detailed manner, as per Emma Jung.^[6]

Intuition[]

Intuition is also presented as a basic psychological function as hunches and visions provide an alternative means of perception to sensation: "It is that psychological function which transmits perceptions in an unconscious way. Everything, whether outer or inner objects or their associations, can be the object of this perception. Intuition has this peculiar quality: it is neither sensation, nor feeling, nor intellectual conclusion, although it may appear in any of these forms."^[1]

Extraverted intuition[]

Extroverted intuition is the type of intuition that introspects in an extroverted and thus, objective manner—thus, the extroverted intuitive type is the "brainstormer", one who introspects many possibilities for certain situations. Because of this, the extroverted intuitive is known to have quite flighty judgment and a lack of decisiveness.^[5]

Introverted intuition[]

Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted and thus, subjective manner. Jung wrote: "Intuition, in the introverted attitude, is directed upon the inner object, a term we might justly apply to the elements of the unconscious. For the relation of inner objects to consciousness is entirely analogous to that of outer objects, although theirs is a psychological and not a physical reality. Inner objects appear to the intuitive perception as subjective images of things, which, though not met with in external experience, really determine the contents of the unconscious, i.e. the collective unconscious, in the last resort. [...] Although this intuition may receive its impetus from outer objects, it is never arrested by the external possibilities, but stays with that factor which the outer object releases within. [...] Introverted intuition apprehends the images which arise from the a priori, i.e. the inherited foundations of the unconscious mind. These archetypes, whose innermost nature is inaccessible to experience, represent the precipitate of psychic functioning of the whole ancestral line, i.e. the heaped-up, or pooled, experiences of organic existence in general, a million times repeated, and condensed into types. Hence, in these archetypes all experiences are represented which since primeval time have happened on this planet. Their archetypal distinctness is the more marked, the more frequently and intensely they have been experienced. The archetype would be—to borrow from Kant—the noumenon of the image which intuition perceives and, in perceiving, creates." ^[2]

Jung differentiates introverted intuition and introverted sensation: "Whereas introverted sensation is mainly confined to the perception of particular innervation phenomena by way of the unconscious, and does not go beyond them, intuition represses this side of the subjective factor and perceives the image which has really occasioned the innervation. Supposing, for instance, a man is overtaken by a psychogenic attack of giddiness. Sensation is arrested by the peculiar character of this innervation/disturbance, perceiving all its qualities, its intensity, its transient course, the nature of its origin and disappearance in their every detail, without raising the smallest inquiry concerning the nature of the thing which produced the disturbance, or advancing anything as to its content. Intuition, on the other hand, receives from the sensation only the impetus to immediate activity; it peers behind the scenes, quickly perceiving the inner image that gave rise to the specific phenomenon, i.e. the attack of vertigo, in the present case. It sees the image of a tottering man pierced through the heart by an arrow. This image fascinates the intuitive activity; it is arrested by it, and seeks to explore every detail of it. It holds fast to the vision, observing with the liveliest interest how the picture changes, unfolds further, and finally fades. In this way introverted intuition perceives all the background processes of consciousness with almost the same distinctness as extraverted sensation senses outer objects. For intuition, therefore, the unconscious images attain to the dignity of things or objects. But, because intuition excludes the cooperation of sensation, it obtains either no knowledge at all or at the best a very inadequate awareness of the innervation-disturbances or of the physical effects produced by the unconscious images. Accordingly, the images appear as though detached from the subject, as though existing in themselves without relation to the person. Consequently, in the above-mentioned example, the introverted intuitive, when affected by the giddiness, would not imagine that the perceived image might also in some way refer to himself. Naturally, to one who is rationally orientated, such a thing seems almost unthinkable, but it is none the less a fact, and I have often experienced it in my dealings with this type." ^[2]

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator[]

Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric formalized these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extroversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).

Controversy over attitudes[]

Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extrovert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extroverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted".^[2]

More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.

To summarize Jung's views, as discussed in Psychological Types and maintained until his death, Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extroversion for extroverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination".^[2] The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extroversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious.^[7][8] Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary.^[8] His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types.^[8]

Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers^[9] for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on one sentence from Jung:

"For all the types met with in practice, the rule holds good that besides the conscious, primary function there is a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the primary function."^[2]

And in using this phrase to set an opposing attitude for the auxiliary function, Myers disregarded that in Jungian language, functions are separate from their orientation, as orientation is a property of consciousness as a whole, and also disregarded the examples Jung gave immediately afterwards in the text that do not speak of attitude:

"From these combinations well-known pictures arise, the practical intellect for instance paired with sensation, the speculative intellect breaking through with intuition, the artistic intuition which selects. and presents its images by means of feeling judgement, the philosophical intuition which, in league with a vigorous intellect, translates its vision into the sphere of comprehensible thought, and so forth."^[1]

And also disregards the context and language Jung used in speaking of the four functions:

"I distinguish these functions from one another because they cannot be related or reduced to one another. The principle of thinking, for instance, is absolutely different from the principle of feeling, and so forth."^[1]

However, in Collected Works 6, paragraph 913, Jung clearly ties the four basic functions to the introverted and extraverted attitudes to establish his eight types. So it can be argued that the functions are not separate from their orientation in Jungian language, otherwise we wouldn't find it in his words:

"I would like to stress that each of the two general attitudes , introversion and extraversion, manifests itself in a special way in an individual through the predominance of one of the four basic functions. Strictly speaking, there are no introverts and extraverts pure and simple, but only introverted and extraverted function types."[4]

As with the reference above, where Jung refers to "One could therefore expect to find extroverted feelings in an introverted intellectual" [4] it is clear from his language that the functions are linked to the attitudes in the way that Myers, Beebe and Berens have adopted.

Different models[]

The tables below give different theorists' ideas about personality types in terms of "cognitive functions".

Carl Jung[]

As per Jung, "Diagram showing the four functions of consciousness. Thinking, the superior function in this case, occupies the centre of the light half of the circle, whereas feeling, the inferior function, occupies the dark half. The two auxiliary functions are partly in the light and partly in the dark"^[10]

Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book Psychological Types in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extroverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition). He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior, in which there is one dominant function, two auxiliary functions, and one inferior function.^[5] Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more conscious a function is, the higher the tendency and potential it has to develop.^[2] The less differentiation is hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious,^{[clarification needed]} and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control.^{[clarification needed][2]} Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.

The following table is a summarized model of Jung's conception of personality types based on the four functions, introversion, and extroversion.

Isabel Myers[]

A diagram of the cognitive functions of each Myers-Briggs type. A type's background color represents its Dominant function, and its text color represents its Auxiliary function.

Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals.

John Beebe[]

Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however. John Beebe's model is based on Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, which is not part of the current scientific consensus and may be unfalsifiable.^[11]

Linda Berens[]

The layout of 's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same.

Lenore Thomson[]

offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.

References[]

Further reading[]

• Jung, C. G. (1971) [1921]. Psychological Types. Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Vol. 6. Translated by Adler, Gerhard; Hull, R. F. C. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5086-0. JSTOR j.ctt5hhqtj.
• Myers, Isabel Myers (1995) [1980]. Gifts Differing, Palo Alto, C.A.: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 0-89106-074-X.
• Thompson, Henry L (1996). Jung's Function-Attitudes Explained, Watkinsville, GA.: Wormhole Publishing. ISBN 978-1-887278-01-0.
• Nardi, Dario (2005). "8 Keys to Self-Leadership From Awareness To Action", Huntington Beach, CA :Unite Business Press. ISBN 978-0-9719326-1-6.
• Thomson, Lenore (1998). Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-57062-987-0.

External links[]

• Center for Applications of Psychological Type website
• 8 Cognitive Processes website