Marguerite Frick-Cramer

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Marguerite Frick-Cramer
RenéeMargueriteCramer V-P-HIST-03557-05.jpg
Cramer during WWI at the IPWA
Born(1887-12-28)28 December 1887
Geneva, Switzerland
Died22 October 1963(1963-10-22) (aged 75)
Geneva
NationalitySwiss
Scientific career
FieldsHistory, International Humanitarian Law
Signature
ICRC-Library Signature ReneeMargueriteCramer IPWA.jpg

Marguerite "Meggy"[1] Frick-Cramer (28 December 1887, Geneva – 22 October 1963, Geneva), born Renée-Marguerite Cramer, was a Swiss legal scholar, historian, and humanitarian activist,[2] who was a forerunner for her female colleagues:

In 1910 she became only the third woman in Switzerland to obtain the license for working as an advocate. In 1917, she became the first ever female delegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)[3] and the first ever female member of its governing body in 1918.[4][5] At the same time, she was the first female historian to become a deputy professor in Switzerland.[6] Moreover, Frick-Cramer was a pioneer for gender equality in the development of international humanitarian law as the very first woman to co-draft a Geneva Convention in 1929.[7]

During the terror reign of Nazism in Germany and especially during the Second World War she became «the most outspoken advocate»[8] inside the ICRC leadership to publicly denounce Nazi Germany's system of extermination and concentration camps.[5]

Biography[]

Family background, education and early career[]

Louis Micheli (image from the audiovisual collections of the ICRC Archives)

Cramer's family on the paternal side "probably" originated from what is now Germany and acquired the citizenship of the Republic of Geneva in 1668. Her father was a theatre director, who also became the president of the Calvinist ecclesiastical court of the Protestant Church of Geneva.[9] Her mother Eugénie Léonie Micheli[3] hailed from another Patrician family which established itself in Geneva shortly before the Cramer family.[2] Cramer's maternal grandfather (1836-1888), who was a rich agronomist and «gentleman farmer», became a member of the ICRC in 1869, just six years after its founding, and served as its Vice-President from 1876 until his death.[10] His Patrician class

«had turned to banking and philanthropic activities at the end of the 19th century, after losing control of the major public offices in Geneva.»[7]

Cramer studied law in Geneva and Paris, graduating from the University of Geneva in 1910.[11][3] In mid-1910, she became only the third woman in Switzerland to obtain the license for working as an advocate.[12][13] However, she did not practise the profession and instead turned her interest on researching constitutional law and the history of Switzerland, earning her doctorate in that field.[3] Cramer published a number of works on the principal of nationality, the prosecution of juveniles, and various aspects of Genevan history, for which she was awarded the prestigious in 1911 and 1913.[14] Her best known book became Genève et les Suisses which she published in 1914 for the centenary of Geneva joining the Swiss Confederation. It was supervised by Professor Charles Borgeaud, who was one of her relatives.[9]

First World War[]

Group Portrait with Lady: Cramer (left) with the male IPWA directors , , K. de Watteville, , , Edmond Boissier, , and

Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the ICRC under its president Gustave Ador established the International Prisoners-of-War Agency (IPWA) to trace POWs and to re-establish communications with their respective families. The Austrian writer and pacifist Stefan Zweig described the situation at the Geneva headquarters of the ICRC as follows:

«Hardly had the first blows been struck when cries of anguish from all lands began to be heard in Switzerland. Thousands who were without news of fathers, husbands, and sons in the battlefields, stretched despairing arms into the void. By hundreds, by thousands, by tens of thousands, letters and telegrams poured into the little House of the Red Cross in Geneva, the only international rallying point that still remained. Isolated, like stormy petrels, came the first inquiries for missing relatives; then these inquiries themselves became a storm. The letters arrived in sackfuls. Nothing had been prepared for dealing with such an inundation of misery. The Red Cross had no space, no organization, no system, and above all no helpers.»[15]

Portraits by Frédéric Boissonnas
In the Tracing Agency
With her fellow directors Jacques Chenéviere and Étienne Clouzot (right)

Already at the end of the same year though, the Agency had some 1,200 volunteers who worked in the Musée Rath of Geneva, amongst them the French writer and pacifist Romain Rolland. When he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for 1915, he donated half of the prize money to the Agency.[16] Most of the staff were women though. Cramer participated right from the start in the creation of the Agency and thus pursued the family tradition established by her maternal grandfather Louis Micheli who was one of the first members of the ICRC: her uncle , and three of her cousins – , , and – served likewise at the IWPA. The same is true for a step-relative, ,[3] who hailed from Geneva's oldest family.[2] Soon she shared the direction of the Entente department with the writer Jacques Chenevière, who wrote in his memoirs that Cramer's

«organizational ability wrought miracles.»[17]

According to the ICRC historian Daniel Palmieri, it was Cramer's idea to cope with the big data about individual fates by introducing a system of index cards linked to catalogues.[18]

Cramer also engaged in fundraising for the under-financed agency: in spring 1916 she performed with a number of colleagues a theatre drama play with the title Le Château historique! ("the historical palace!"), a comedy in three acts by Alexandre Bisson and . Cramer played the heroine Marguerite Baudoin.[19] The performance raised some 3.000 Swiss francs, which was a considerable sum at the time.[20]

In December 1916, Cramer and another pioneering female colleague – Marguerite van Berchem – went to Frankfurt to convince the local Red Cross there to stop doing work that was already done in Geneva.[21]

In March and April of 1917, Cramer officially became the first female delegate of the ICRC ever when she was sent on a mission to Berlin, Copenhagen and Stockholm.[3] In October of the same year, she went on another mission to Paris[7] and in December, she took part in the Franco-German conferences which the ICRC organised in Bern upon the request of the Swiss government in order to negotiate the repatriation of POWs.[3] Still in the same year, the ICRC was awarded its first Nobel Peace Prize – the only prize awarded during the war years – to which Cramer arguably made her own contribution as well. However, Cramer was unhappy with some of the internal ICRC structures:

«In March 1918, Renée-Marguerite announced she would resign from the Agency. When she eventually changed her mind, she insisted that the ICRC set up permanent delegations in the different belligerent countries and allowed the Agency's heads of departments to sit in the Committee's meetings.»[7]

In June 1918, perhaps as a result of her pressure, the Egyptologist Edouard Naville - who was the ICRC President ad interim, since Gustave Ador was elected to the Swiss Federal Council in 1917[22] - recommended the appointment of Cramer as a member of the Committee,[20] which at the time was made up exclusively of men.[23] Naville, who hailed from Geneva's second-oldest family,[2] pointed to “her qualifications and service”, but also emphasized that a woman's presence “would only serve to honor and strengthen” the Committee.[20] However, her candidacy was delayed as it revealed tensions between the ICRC and some national Red Cross societies: firstly, about the ICRC policy of only recruiting Swiss nationals – and mainly from Geneva's Patrician families. Secondly, specific tensions had arisen between Cramer and representatives from the United States of America[3] in 1917. They evolved around the issue that the American Red Cross set up an agency for US-POWs in Bern, which made Cramer worry about crucial information becoming dispersed.[7]

Between the World Wars[]

Manuscript on POW conventions, signed and annoted by Cramer, from the collections of the ICRC Library

Still in 1918, the University of Geneva offered Cramer a deputy professorship to substitute for her former supervisor Charles Borgeaud[9] and to teach the history of Geneva.[3] He was busy working on a memorandum concerning Swiss neutrality, which the Swiss government presented to the conference about the Treaty of Versailles.[24] However, her career as an academic lecturer was short-lived, since she took up new responsibilities at the ICRC already during the first semester:[3]

On 27 November 1918, two and a half weeks after the end of the War, Cramer was finally co-opted as a member of the ICRC.[3] Despite the hesitations some of its members felt in allowing a woman to join its ranks, the Committee understood that such change would be inevitable, in no small part because the war had deeply modified people's perception of gender equality.[25] As a result, Cramer became the first woman to be a member of the governing body of any international organization,[4] more than fifty years before the introduction of voting rights for women in Switzerland.

When representatives from the National Red Cross Societies of the Allies/Entente Powers came together in Cannes and Paris to establish the League of Red Cross Societies, Cramer was sent by the Committee to join the negotiations.[2]

Frick-Cramer, portrayed once more by Frédéric Boissonnas

In 1920, Cramer married , a Swiss citizen who was born in Saint Petersburg and served as the ICRC general delegate for Eastern Europe,[3] most notably during the Russian Revolution[26] and later as a deputy for Fridtjof Nansen when he became the High Commissioner for Refugees of the League of Nations.[2] Cramer and Frick had dealt with each other on a professional basis before their wedding.[26]

Frick-Cramer moved to Germany and resigned from her ICRC membership for a first time in December 1922, when she realised that she could not follow the ICRC affairs properly from such a distance.[3] However, she was made an honorary member instead and continued to dedicate her activities to the development of the international humanitarian law:

Frick-Cramer's focus became the elaboration of international conventions to protect both the military and civil victims of war. She became one of the principal actors who gave birth to the 1929 Geneva Convention about the treatment of POWs. During the diplomatic conference in July of that year, Frick-Cramer was the only female expert participant and as such the first woman to co-draft a Geneva Convention ever.[7] However, the treaty was only partly considered a success since its implementation solely depended on the goodwill of the warring parties.[27]

She also played a key role in the "Tokyo-project" which aimed to provide protection for civilians of "enemy" nationality caught up in the territory of an opposing war party.[3] In October 1934, she participated along with her fellow pioneering colleagues Marguerite van Berchem and Lucie Odier on behalf of the ICRC in the 15th international conference of the Red Cross Movement in the Japanese capital. Frick-Cramer presented a draft text which prohibited repressions, deportations, and executions of hostages, granting civilian detainees at least the same protections as POWs. The conference approved of the draft and commissioned the ICRC to organise a diplomatic conference, which could not take place though due to objections from the British and French governments.[28]

Meanwhile, with regard to the emerging system of concentration camps in Nazi Germany, the ICRC decided in March 1935 to transform its working group for civilians into one for political prisoners. Frick-Cramer was a member of both the former and the latter.[28] In September 1935, during a meeting of the ICRC leadership in which the organization's attitude towards the system was discussed before the visit of a delegation,

«the two women in the meeting, Suzanne Ferrière and Renée-Marguerite Frick-Cramer, stated that the ICRC should at least do everything to give news to the families of the inmates.»

However, the delegation led by Carl Jacob Burckhardt only recorded a "mild critique" to its Nazi hosts.[29]

Second World War[]

Group Portrait with two Ladies: Frick-Cramer in the back-row, fourth from the right, and Lucie Odier, second from right in the front-row with Huber third from left, during a meeting with representatives of national Red Cross societes from non-belligerent countries(1940)

Shortly after the beginning of the Second World War, the ICRC set up the . It was the successor of the IPWA and based on the 1929 Geneva Convention which Frick-Cramer had helped to create. Still in September 1939, she was elected once again as a regular member of the ICRC, in contrast to her honorary membership of the previous 17 years.[3] Subsequently, she held the dossier for civilians and deported persons. Soon after the German invasion of Poland Frick-Cramer repreately lobbied Burckhardt, who went on to become the ICRC president in 1944, to urge the Nazi regime for permission to establish a permanent ICRC delegation in Krakow, but he apparently ignored her requests.[28]

Frick-Cramer's statement from 14th October 1942 at the Museum

In the committee she continued to try to convince the ICRC President Max Huber, who at the same time did private business in the arms industry,[30] and his successor Burckhardt to undertake strong interventions in favour of civilians held by Nazi Germany, especially in the concentration camps, but to no avail:[3]

In May 1942, the ICRC revived its working group for POWs and detained civilians with Frick-Cramer holding the dossier for the latter. Yet, the top-leadership did not follow her recommendation to demand from the General Governorate for the Occupied Polish Region the right for deported persons to transmit messages to their families. By autumn of that year, the ICRC leadership – including Frick-Cramer – received reports about the systematic extermination of Jews by Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe, the so-called Final Solution. While a large majority of the ICRC's about two dozen members at its general assembly on 14 October 1942 was in favour of a public protest, Burckhardt and Switzerland's President Philipp Etter firmly denied that request. Frick-Cramer then urged for a direct intervention. The minutes of the meeting, which are on display at the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva, recorded her following statement (in French):

«Madam Frick strongly doubts that an appeal would immediately have a positive effect. However, on the other hand, it would certainly not interfere with the practical activity of the Red Cross, which is useful to belligerents on the basis of reciprocity. The silence of the committee would be a negative act with extremely grave consequences, which would risk to compromise the very existence of the committee.»

Yet, this warning was rebuked as well. As a consequence, Frick-Cramer's standing inside the organisation was diminished: when the executive committee established a department for special assistance to civilian detainees, Frick-Cramer as well as her fellow experts Ferrière and Odier were left out of it.[28]

Another portray by Fred Boissonnas, apparently from 1942

In late 1944, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that it awarded the ICRC its second Nobel Peace Prize after 1917. As in World War I, it was the only recipient during the war years. While the then leadership of the ICRC was later sharply criticized for not publicly denouncing Nazi Germany's system of extermination and concentration camps, it may be argued that Frick-Cramer all the more made her distinct contribution to what the Norwegian Nobel Committee credited the ICRC with, i.e.

«the great work it has performed during the war on behalf of humanity.»

However, shortly afterwards, in late November 1944, Frick-Cramer was so shocked by reports about Nazi human experiments that she wrote in a private note:

«If nothing can be done, then one should send to those unfortunate ones the means to end their lives; perhaps that would be more humane than to send them food aid.»[28]

Post-1945[]

Frick-Cramer retired from the Committee on 3 October 1946. According to , professor of the transnational history of Switzerland at the University of Geneva, she pointed in her resignation letter to the failures of the ICRC during the Second World War as well as to the growing competition from other organisations. However,

«An explaination for her decision was not given in the letter which cannout be found in the ICRC archives. Why a woman of her dedication and talent would step down from the committee at such a crucial moment, will forever remain a mystery. We can only make certain assumptions. One possible reason is that she had a burn-out, was tired and looking forward to spend her well-deserved retirement at a familiar place.»

And:

«The irony of the story is this: when the ICRC had to find a strategy to account for its silence over the holocaust and to exonerate itself, it turned of all people to Frick-Cramer. Her loyalty was so strong that she agreed to do it and brought forward the argument that the protection of civilians – for which she had advocated so strongly! – was not part of the ICRC mandate. Was this perhaps one humilitation too much? That is what the events at least indicate to and so her resignation appears in totally different light.»[27]

The mansion of the Micheli domain in Landecy

Upon her retirement, Frick-Cramer was once again made an honorary member and kept that title for the rest of her life,[3] which she spent with her husband at her family estate, the Micheli domain of Landecy in Bardonnex.[31] Frick-Cramer continued to promote the idea of the "Tokyo-project" and submitted the text of a draft convention which would have merged the conventions protecting soldiers and civilians. Though it was turned down, the adoption of the 1949 Geneva Conventions was still

«the conclusion of a long process in which she played a crucial role.»[7]

On 10 October 1963, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that it awarded the ICRC its third Nobel Peace Prize after 1917 and 1944, making it the only organisation to be honoured thrice.[32] «The small grande dame» – as many called Frick-Cramer with great affection[27] – died twelve days later. The obituary in the International Review of the Red Cross praised her "vast experience" and "grand authority", while stressing that she was on the other hand a "modest" person.[33] She was survived by her husband who died in 1981,[34] her daughter Jacqueline[35] and her three grand-children.[36]

Legacy[]

Avenue BLANC / Avenue Marguerite FRICK-CRAMER

From June until September 2009, when the University of Geneva celebrated its 450th anniversary, a larger-than-life portrait of Frick-Cramer was part of the exposition "FACES à FACES" on the facade of the Uni Dufour building, in sight of the Musée Rath where she once started her ICRC career.[37]

In 2019, the project in Geneva – where 549 streets are named after men and only 43 after women[38] – put up a temporary street sign with Frick-Cramer's name at the Avenue Blanc in the Sécheron quarter of Geneva, where the ICRC and the United Nations Office as well as many permanent missions to the UN are based.[39]

A 2020 portrait by an ICRC librarian stresses that Frick-Cramer left behind

«the memory of a woman confident in the value of the humanitarian ideal, and a tenacious and determined worker who was inventive and innovative in the way she thought about international humanitarian law. She believed that the ICRC's activities were not limited by past Conventions and resolutions, but that it had both “the right and the duty to innovate whenever the laws of humanity require it.”»[7]

Selected works[]

External link[]

References[]

  1. ^ "Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Jacob Burckhardt und Marguerite Frick-Cramer". vge.swisscovery.slsp.ch. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Fiscalini, Diego (1985). Des élites au service d'une cause humanitaire: le Comité International de la Croix-Rouge. Geneva: Université de Genève, faculté des lettres, département d’histoire. pp. 18, 142, 211.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Palmieri, Daniel (2005). Deuber Ziegler, Erica; Tikhonov, Natalia (eds.). Marguerite Frick-Cramer. Les femmes dans la mémoire de Genève : du XVe au XXe siècle (in French). Geneva: Editions Suzanne Hurter. pp. 182–183.
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Palmieri, Daniel (Winter 2012). "An institution standing the test of time? A review of 150 years of the history of the International Committee of the Red Cross" (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 94 (888): 1279. doi:10.1017/S1816383113000039. S2CID 144089076. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Favez, Jean-Claude (1988). Une mission impossible ? [An impossible mission?] (in French). Lausanne: Payot.
  6. ^ Herrmann, Irène (2019). Marguerite Cramer : appréciée même des antiféministes. Action humanitaire et quête de la paix : le prix Nobel de la paix décerné au CICR pendant la Grande Guerre (in French). Geneva: Fondation Gustave Ador. pp. 154–155.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Meyre, Camille (12 March 2020). "Renée-Marguerite Frick-Cramer". Cross-Files | ICRC Archives, audiovisual and library. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  8. ^ Hopgood, Stephen (2013). The Endtimes of Human Rights. Cornell University Press. pp. 47–68.
  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Trente ans au service de la Croix-Rouge internationale". Journal de Genève: 5. 15 August 1944.
  10. ^ Durand, Roger (2018). "LOUIS APPIA ACCUEILLE LE BARON RUDOLPH VON SYDOW" (PDF). Bulletin de la Société Henry Dunant (in French). 27: 8.
  11. ^ "Grades universitaires". La Tribune de Genève (in French). 32 (176): 4. 28 July 1910 – via e-newspaperarchives.ch.
  12. ^ "Genf. Weibliche Fürsprecher". Geschäftsblatt für den oberen Teil des Kantons Bern (in German). 57 (Nummer 62): 2. 3 August 1910 – via e-newspaperarchives.ch.
  13. ^ Morf, Marta (10 February 1945). "Marguerite Frick-Cramer". Meyers Schweizer Frauen- und Modeblatt. 6.
  14. ^ "Prix universitaires". La Tribune de Genève (in French). 35 (130): 5. 6 June 1913 – via e-newspaperarchives.ch.
  15. ^ Zweig, Stefan (1921). Romain Rolland; the man and his work. Translated by Eden, Paul; Cedar, Paul. New York: T. Seltzer. p. 268.
  16. ^ Schazmann, Paul-Emile (February 1955). "Romain Rolland et la Croix-Rouge: Romain Rolland, Collaborateur de l'Agence internationale des prisonniers de guerre" (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross (in French). 37 (434): 140–143. doi:10.1017/S1026881200125735.
  17. ^ Cheneviere, Jacques (1967). "SOME REMINISCENCES - The First "Prisoners of War Agency" Geneva 1914-1918" (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 75: 294.
  18. ^ Pache, Nicolas (16 July 2014). "Bern/Genf: Das IKRK erlebt seine Feuertaufe - Tag für Tag bis zu 30 000 Briefe und Pakete". Walliser Bote (in German). 174 (162): 15 – via e-newspaperarchives.ch.
  19. ^ "Au bénéfice de l'Agence des prisonniers de guerre". La Tribune de Genève. 38 (88): 5. 13 April 1916 – via e-nespaperarchives.ch.
  20. ^ Jump up to: a b c Palmieri, Daniel (2014). Les procès-verbaux de l'Agence internationale des prisonniers de guerre (AIPG) (PDF) (in French). Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. pp. 13, 210, 241, 243.
  21. ^ Cotter, Cédric (2017). (S') aider pour survivre : action humanitaire et neutralité Suisse pendant la Première Guerre Mondiale. Chêne-Bourg: Georg éditeur. p. 482. ISBN 978-3034014762.
  22. ^ Vuilleumier, Sandrine (25 October 2019). "Naville, Edouard". Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (in German). Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  23. ^ "Le CICR, 150 ans d'histoire et une capacité à se renouveller" [ICRC, 150 years and a renewal capacity] (in French). L'Obs. 11 February 2015. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  24. ^ de Senarclens, Jean (12 October 2004). "Borgeaud, Charles". Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS) (in German). Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  25. ^ "The International Committee of the Red Cross in the First World War". icrc.org. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2017. It was a first for any international organization.
  26. ^ Jump up to: a b Bugnion, François (2018). FACE À L'ENFER DES TRANCHÉES: LE COMITÉ INTERNATIONAL DE LA CROIX-ROUGE ET LA PREMIÈRE GUERRE MONDIALE (PDF) (in French). Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. pp. 126, 133. ISBN 978-2-940396-69-6.
  27. ^ Jump up to: a b c Herrmann, Irène (31 May 2021). "Eine humanitäre Pionierin". Blog zur Schweizer Geschichte - Schweizerisches Nationalmuseum (in German). Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Favez, Jean-Claude (1989). Das Internationale Rote Kreuz und das Dritte Reich - War der Holocaust aufzuhalten? (in German). Zurich: Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung. pp. 35–39, 79, 135, 146, 153–154, 171, 174, 183, 185, 187, 197, 225–227, 237, 303 307, 356, 365, 386, 455, 483. ISBN 3858231967.
  29. ^ Steinacher, Gerald (29 July 2017). "The Red Cross in Nazi Germany". OUPblog. Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
  30. ^ Rauh, Cornelia (2009). Schweizer Aluminium für Hitlers Krieg? Zur Geschichte der "Alusuisse" 1918–1950 (in German). Munich: Beck. ISBN 9783406522017.
  31. ^ Kaufmann, Hélène (1952). "Deuxième réunion du Bureau international d'Anthropologie différentielle (B.I.A.D.). Genève, 10-14 septembre 1952" (PDF). Archives suisses d'anthropologie général (in French). 17 (1): 80.
  32. ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize Award to the International Committee and the League". International Review of the Red Cross. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  33. ^ "† Mme R.-M. Frick-Cramer" (PDF). La Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge (in French): 573–574. 1963.
  34. ^ Palmieri, Daniel (2020). LES PROCÈS-VERBAUX DE L'AGENCE INTERNATIONALE DES PRISONNIERS DE GUERRE (PDF) (in French). 2. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. p. 10.
  35. ^ Lossier, Jean-Georges (24 October 1963). "Mme R.-M. Frick-Cramer". Journal de Genève. 249.
  36. ^ "Madam Edouard Frick-Cramer". Der Bund (in German). 114 (453): 19. 23 October 1963 – via e-newspaperarchives.ch.
  37. ^ "Faces à faces - Métamorphose d'un bâtiment" (PDF). Université de Genève | (in French). 30 January 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  38. ^ Osváth, Alexandra (14 October 2019). "GENEVA'S BACKSTREET GIRLS". Things to do in Geneva. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  39. ^ "Renée-Marguerite FRICK-CRAMER". 100 Elles* (in French). Retrieved 6 April 2021.
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