Project 97 icebreaker

Project 97P icebreaking patrol vessel Volga at Petropavlovsk in 2007
Class overview
Name	Project 97
Builders	Admiralty Shipyard (Saint Petersburg, Russia)
Operators	Various
Subclasses	97 (icebreaker) 97А (icebreaker) 97K (icebreaker) 97E (icebreaker) 97AP (patrol icebreaker) 97P (patrol vessel) 97D (hydrographic survey vessel) 97B (hydrographic survey vessel) 97H (research vessel)
Built	1960–1981
In service	1960–present
Completed	32
Active	9
Laid up	1
Scrapped	21
Preserved	1

Project 97 icebreakers and their derivatives are a diverse series of diesel-electric icebreakers and other icebreaking vessels built in the Soviet Union. In total, 32 vessels were built in various configurations for both civilian and naval service in the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s, and several remain in service in Russia as of 2020.

Background and construction[]

In the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union began developing a new diesel-electric icebreaker design that could meet the needs of both civilian and naval operators. At the time, the merchant marine relied largely on ageing steam-powered icebreakers, many of which had been built during the Imperial Russia era and would reach the end of their operational life in the coming years. In addition, the Soviet Navy possessed just one ice-capable vessel for patrolling the country's northern border, , which had been laid down already in 1938 but did not enter service until 1957.^[1]

Technical development of the new icebreakers was entrusted to Saint Petersburg -based Central Design Bureau No. 15, today known as and part of the state-owned United Shipbuilding Corporation, which based the hull lines on the Swedish-built steam-powered icebreaker Eisbär which Germany had handed over to the Soviet Union as war reparations in 1946. Discussions during technical meetings sometimes became heated as naval architects tried to include both civilian and naval requirements into the design. One of the sources of disagreement was the bow propeller which was considered essential for icebreaking operations in the Baltic Sea and other non-Arctic waters but susceptible to damage in heavier Arctic ice conditions.^[1]

Once the final design had been developed, the construction of the Project 97 icebreakers and their derivatives was awarded to the Saint Petersburg -based Admiralty Shipyard. The construction of the first series, which consisted of largely similar triple-screw icebreakers with the exception of one twin-screw Project 97B hydrographic survey vessel, proceeded at a rapid rate: the hulls were assembled side by side on the slipway and launched at a technical readiness of 60 to 80 %. In 1960–1971, the shipyard delivered up to three vessels annually, often in different configurations, while simultaneously implementing various technical improvements devised during the operation of the first vessels of the series. The second series with eight Project 97P patrol vessels and one research vessel was built in 1973–1981.^[1]

With a total of 32 vessels built in various configurations over more than two decades, Project 97 is the largest and longest-running class of icebreakers and icebreaking vessels built in the world. With the exception of nuclear-powered icebreakers, they were also the only domestically-built post-war icebreaking vessels in the Soviet Union and later Russia until the construction of Project 21900 icebreakers in the late 2000s.^[2]

General characteristics[]

All Project 97 variants had a length overall between 67.7 and 73 metres (222 and 240 ft) and a maximum beam from 18 to 18.6 metres (59 to 61 ft). Fully laden, the vessels drew between 5.35 and 6.6 metres (17.6 and 21.7 ft) of water corresponding to a full load displacement ranging from 2,935 to 3,700 tonnes (2,889 to 3,642 long tons) with the later patrol and research vessel variants being somewhat larger than the early icebreakers. The hull form, derived from an older Swedish-built icebreaker, featured a round midship with pronounced tumblehome and practically no flat bottom or sides. While the curved hull lines resulted in low resistance and high maneuverability in ice, the vessels were very uncomfortable in open water due to excessive rolling.^[1]

Both twin- and triple-screw Project 97 variants shared the same diesel-electric power plant with three direct current (DC) main diesel generators. The 1,800-horsepower (1,300 kW) 13D100 two-stroke opposed-piston main diesel engines were in fact reverse-engineered Fairbanks Morse 38 8-1/8 diesel engines manufactured by the Malyshev Factory in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The engines were coupled to double-armature DC generators (2 × 625 kWe) that provided power to 2,500 hp (1,900 kW) electric propulsion motors driving two 3.5-metre (11 ft) fixed pitch propellers in the stern and, on variants with a third propeller, a 1,600 hp (1,200 kW) electric motor driving a 2.7-metre (9 ft) propeller in the bow.^[1][3]

During initial icebreaking trials, triple-screw Project 97 variants were able to break 70 to 75 centimetres (28 to 30 in) thick level ice with a 25-centimetre (9.8 in) snow layer on top at very slow but continuous speed. However, the later twin-screw variants were expected to have slightly lower icebreaking capability.^[1]

Icebreakers[]

Project 97[]

Three Project 97 icebreakers were built for the Soviet Navy: for the Northern Fleet,^[4] for the Baltic Fleet,^[5] and for the Pacific Fleet.^[3] While initially armed with 57 mm and 25 mm deck guns, the vessels were later disarmed.^[1]

Project 97А[]

The series of unarmed icebreakers built for the Ministry of the Maritime Fleet of the Soviet Union, Project 97A, is the most numerous variant of the Project 97 family with twelve vessels built between 1961 and 1971. While initially named simply Ledokol (Russian: Ледокол, tr. icebreaker) followed by a running number, in 1966 they were given individual names to honor famous Imperial Russian and Soviet polar explorers.^[1]

As of 2020, three Project 97A icebreakers remain in service with 's North-Western Basin Branch in the Baltic Sea: , , and .^[7][8][9]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	IMO number	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
(Russian: Василий Прончищев; 1966–1989) Ledokol-1 (Russian: Ледокол-1; 1961–1966)	Vasili Pronchishchev	6500765	762	13 December 1960	28 April 1961	30 December 1961	1961–1989	Broken up		[10][11]
(Russian: Афанасий Никитин; 1966–1995) Ledokol-2 (Russian: Ледокол-2; 1962–1966)	Afanasy Nikitin	6500791	764	1 November 1961	31 May 1962	1 November 1962	1962–1995	Broken up		[12][13]
(Russian: Харитон Лаптев; 1966–1996) Ledokol-3 (Russian: Ледокол-3; 1962–1966)	Khariton Laptev	6500806	765	10 February 1962	11 August 1962	25 December 1962	1962–1996	Broken up		[14][15]
Poyar (Russian: Пояр; 1988) (Russian: Василий Поярков; 1966–1988) Ledokol-4 (Russian: Ледокол-4; 1963–1966)	Vassili Poyarkov	6500777	766	13 August 1962	16 March 1963	26 July 1963	1963–1988	Broken up		[16][17]
(Russian: Ерофей Хабаров; 1966–1993) Ledokol-5 (Russian: Ледокол-5; 1963–1966)	Yerofey Khabarov	6500789	767	5 April 1963	24 August 1963	7 December 1963	1963–1993	Broken up		[18][19]
(Russian: Иван Крузенштерн; 1966–present) Ledokol-6 (Russian: Ледокол-6; 1964–1966)	Adam Johann von Krusenstern	6501496	768	20 January 1964	29 April 1964	27 October 1964	1964–present	In service		[7][20][21]
Vlad (1988) (Russian: Владимир Русанов; 1966–1988) Ledokol-7 (Russian: Ледокол-7; 1964–1966)	Vladimir Rusanov	6508171	769	30 March 1964	25 July 1964	28 December 1964	1964–1988	Broken up		[22][23]
(Russian: Семён Челюскин; 1966–1988) Ledokol-8 (Russian: Ледокол-8; 1965–1966)	Semyon Chelyuskin	6514522	770	12 December 1964	28 February 1965	11 August 1965	1965–1988	Broken up		[24][25]
(Russian: Юрий Лисянский; 1966–present) Ledokol-9 (Russian: Ледокол-9; 1965–1966)	Yuri Lysianskyi	6521850	772	30 June 1965	31 August 1965	30 December 1965	1965–present	In service		[8][26]
(Russian: Фёдор Литке)	Friedrich von Lütke	7020085	780	12 January 1970	29 July 1970	14 December 1970	1970–2013	Broken up		[27][28]
(Russian: Иван Москвитин)	Ivan Moskvitin	7117383	781	2 November 1970	25 March 1971	1 September 1971	1971–1997	Broken up		[29][30]
(Russian: Семён Дежнёв)	Semyon Dezhnev	7119446	782	30 March 1971	31 August 1971	28 December 1971	1971–present	In service		[9][31]

Project 97K[]

Two unarmed Project 97A icebreakers built for the Soviet Navy, for the Pacific Fleet^[32] and for the Baltic Fleet,^[33] are sometimes considered as a separate subclass, Project 97K.^[1]

As of 2020, Buran remains in service with the Baltic Fleet.^[33]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
(Russian: Илья Муромец)	Ilya Muromets	771	10 March 1965	30 June 1965	28 December 1965	1965–1993	Broken up		[32]
(Russian: Буран)	Russian for "blizzard"	773	21 January 1966	16 May 1966	24 October 1966	1966–present	In service		[33]

Project 97E[]

Project 97E was an unarmed icebreaker variant built for East Germany. The vessel,  [de], was operated by the state-owned shipping company Bagger-, Bugsier- und Bergungsreederei Rostock (BBB) until the German reunification in 1990 and until its decommissioning in 2005.^[1]

In 2005, the decommissioned Stephan Jantzen was sold by the German state in an online auction to Beta Mar Limited, a shipping company registered in Greece, for 430,000 euro and renamed Stephan. However, the buyer forfeited the 40,000 euro downpayment and never collected the vessel. In the following years, the vessel changed owners, flags and names several times without ever leaving Rostock while plans to convert the old icebreaker into a luxury yacht were first presented and then abandoned. Finally the vessel, confiscated due to outstanding debts from berth and security fees, was acquired by the City of Rostock in 2018 and returned to the care of the non-profit organization which had looked after it until 2012. After extensive clean-up and renovations, the vessel was opened to the public as a museum ship.^[34]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	IMO number	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
[de] (1967–2005) Stephan (2005–2006) King Ice (2006–2008) Stephan Jantzen (2008–2012) König Ludwig II Von Bayern (2012–2013) Stephan Jantzen (2013–present)	[de] Ludwig II of Bavaria	7117486	775	15 September 1966	30 December 1966	30 November 1967	1967–2005	Museum ship		[35][36]

Patrol vessels[]

Project 97AP[]

Project 97AP (Russian: 97АП) was an armed patrol icebreaker variant built for the Soviet Navy. Built with increased autonomy time and operating range, they were intended to patrol the western and eastern ends of the Northern Sea Route. The armament was later dismantled.^[1]

As of 2020, remains in service with the Pacific Fleet^[37] while , which was previously assigned to the Northern Fleet, has been decommissioned and scrapped.^[38][1]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
(Russian: Садко)	Sadko	777	20 June 1967	28 June 1968	6 November 1968	1968–present	In service		[37]
(Russian: Пересвет)	Alexander Peresvet	778	10 July 1968	29 January 1969	28 July 1970	1970–2011	Broken up		[38]

Project 97P[]

Project 97P (Russian: 97П) was developed as a response to the renewed interest of the Soviet Navy and Border Troops on icebreaking patrol vessels after United States Coast Guard and Canadian Coast Guard icebreakers began appearing more frequently near the country's northern maritime borders. New icebreaking patrol vessels were needed because existing Soviet naval vessels could not operate in ice-covered waters and large icebreakers, in addition to being unarmed and operated by civilians, could not be distracted from their primary mission of escorting merchant ships.^[1]

Project 97 was selected as the design basis following positive operational experience and the difficulties associated with developing a new design. The Project 97P design, developed by Central Design Bureau "Iceberg", was slightly longer than the preceding icebreakers, lacked the damage-prone bow propeller, and featured a bigger deckhouse built of aluminum-magnesium alloy to reduce weight. A helideck capable of receiving a Kamov Ka-25 or Ka-27 helicopter was fitted over the aft deck. The armament consisted of a twin 76 mm AK-726 deck gun and two 30 mm AK-630 close-in weapon systems.^[1]

As of 2020, four Project 97P patrol ships remain in service: with the Pacific Fleet^[39] and with the Northern Fleet,^[40] both with their armaments removed,^[1] and and with the Border Service.^[41][42]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	IMO number	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
(Russian: Иван Сусанин)	Ivan Susanin		02650	31 July 1972	28 February 1973	30 December 1973	1973–present	In service		[43]
(Russian: Айсберг)	Russian for "iceberg"		02651	17 October 1973	27 April 1974	25 December 1974	1974–2006	Broken up		[39]
(Russian: Руслан)	Ruslan		02652	26 December 1973	28 May 1974	26 September 1975	1975–present	In service		[40]
(Russian: Анадырь; 1992–2019) Imeni XXV syezda KPSS (Russian: Имени XXV съезда КПСС; 1976–1992) Dnepr (Russian: Днепр; 1976)	Anadyr 25th Congress of the CPSU Dnepr River		02653	16 July 1975	14 February 1976	30 September 1976	1976–2019	Broken up		[44]
(Russian: Дунай)	Danube River		02654	24 December 1976	5 August 1977	31 December 1977	1977–2017	Broken up		[45]
(Russian: Нева)	Neva River		02655	23 November 1977	28 July 1978	27 December 1978	1978–present	In service		[41]
(Russian: Волга)	Volga River	8640246	02656	27 February 1979	19 April 1980	26 December 1980	1980–present	In service		[46][42]
(Russian: Мурманск; 1996–2013) Irtysh (Russian: Иртыш; 1992–1996) Imeni XXVI syezda KPSS (Russian: Имени XXVI съезда КПСС; 1981–1992)	Murmansk Irtysh River 26th Congress of the CPSU		02657	22 April 1980	3 July 1981	25 December 1981	1981–2013	Broken up		[47]

Other variants[]

Project 97D[]

Project 97D (Russian: 97Д) was a survey vessel variant built for the Ministry of the Maritime Fleet of the Soviet Union to survey the Northern Sea Route. While otherwise nearly identical to baseline Project 97 icebreakers, these two vessels were fitted with additional scientific facilities, echosounders to conduct hydrographic survey, and accommodation for an additional 14 personnel. However, they were also used for icebreaking operations from time to time.^[1]

Project 97B[]

Project 97B (Russian: 97Б) was a hydrographic survey vessel variant built for the Hydrographic Office of the Soviet Navy. Unlike the preceding Project 97D built for civilian service, Project 97B was a more radical departure from the original Project 97 icebreaker design with increased length and displacement to increase range and endurance, as well as an enlarged deckhouse to accommodate more personnel on board.^[1] Project 97B was also the first Project 97 variant and the only vessel from the first series built without the bow propeller.^[3]

As of 2020, remains in service with the Northern Fleet as the stationary barracks ship PKZ-86 in Murmansk.^[52]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
PKZ-86 (Russian: ПКЗ-86; 2012–present) (Russian: Владимир Каврайский; 1965–2012)	Vladimir V. Kavrayskiy	779	25 February 1969	31 October 1969	31 December 1969	1969–present	Used as floating barracks		[52]

Project 97Н[]

Project 97H, the final variant developed based on the Project 97 icebreaker design, was a research vessel commissioned by the State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Control of the Soviet Union to conduct scientific research in the poorly-studied transition zone between open water and the polar ice pack. In addition to adding extensive scientific facilities and additional accommodation space, the hull lines were given more pronounced sheer and flare to reduce the likelihood of waves breaking over the bow. The problematic rolling behavior was also addressed by increasing the rolling period from 7 to 9–10 seconds with design modifications and introducing a passive roll-reduction tank.^[1]

The only Project 97H ship, , entered service in 1979. In 1991, shortly after completing its 40th scientific voyage, the vessel was laid up in Murmansk due to lack of funding. Five years later, Otto Schmidt was sold to a private company and sailed to Alang, India, for scrapping.^[1]

Name(s)	Namesake(s)	IMO number	Yard number	Laid down	Launched	Completed	In service	Status or fate	Image	Ref
(Russian: Отто Шмидт)	Otto Schmidt	7828671	02783	27 December 1977	27 December 1978	31 August 1979	1979–1991	Broken up		[53][54]

References[]