Ramon Llull

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Ramon Llull (disambiguation).
Blessed

Ramon Llull

TOSF
Ribalta-lulio.jpg
Doctor Illuminatus
Bornc. 1232
City of Mallorca (now Palma),
Kingdom of Majorca, now Spain
Diedc. 1315/16
Venerated inRoman Catholic Church
(Third Order of St. Francis)
Beatified1847 by Pope Pius IX
Feast30 June
Ramon Llull
Ramon Llull.jpg
Notable work
  • Blanquerna
  • Tree of Science
  • Ars Magna
EraMedieval philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
SchoolLullism
Main interests
Christian theology, philosophy, Logic, Mathematics.
Notable ideas
Influences
Influenced

Ramon Llull[a] TOSF (Catalan: [rəˈmoɲ ˈʎuʎ]; c. 1232[4] – c. 1315/16) was a philosopher, theologian, poet, missionary, and Christian apologist from the Kingdom of Majorca.

He invented a philosophical system known as the Art, conceived as a type of universal logic to prove the truth of Christian doctrine to interlocutors of all faiths and nationalities. The Art consists of a set of general principles and combinatorial operations. It is illustrated with diagrams.

Considered one of the fathers of Catalan literature, he is thought to be the first to use a vernacular language to express philosophical, scientific, and technical ideas. He wrote in Catalan, Latin, and possibly Arabic (although no texts in Arabic survive). Some of his books were translated into Occitan, French, and Castilian during his lifetime.[5]

Posthumously he has enjoyed a varied reputation. In Catalonia he is considered a saint, but he has also been condemned as a heretic. In the 20th century he figured in a great deal of literature and art, and became known as a precursor of the computer and pioneer of computation theory.[2][6][7]

Biography[]

Early life and family[]

Life of Raymond Lull; 14th-century manuscript

Llull was born into a wealthy family of Barcelona patricians who had come to Kingdom of Majorca in 1229 with the conquering armies of James I of Aragon. James I had conquered the formerly Almohad-ruled Majorca as part of a larger move to integrate the territories of the Balearic Islands (now part of Spain) into the Crown of Aragon. Llull was born there a few years later, in 1232 or 1233. Muslims still constituted a large part of the population of Majorca and Jews were significant in economic and cultural affairs.[8]

In 1257 Llull married Blanca Picany, with whom he had two children, Domènec and Magdalena. Although he formed a family, he lived what he would later call the licentious and wordly life of a troubadour.

Religious calling[]

In 1263 Llull experienced a series of visions. He narrates the event in his autobiography Vita coaetanea ("A Contemporary Life"):

Ramon, while still a young man and Seneschal to the King of Majorca, was very given to composing worthless songs and poems and to doing other licentious things. One night he was sitting beside his bed, about to compose and write in his vulgar tongue a song to a lady whom he loved with a foolish love; and as he began to write this song, he looked to his right and saw our Lord Jesus Christ on the Cross, as if suspended in mid-air.[9]

The vision came to Llull five times in all and inspired in him three intentions: to give up his soul for the sake of God’s love and honor, to convert the ‘Saracens’ to Christianity, and write the best book in the world against the errors of the unbelievers.[10]

Following his visions he sold his possessions on the model of Saint Francis of Assisi and set out on pilgrimages to the shrines of Saint Mary of Rocamadour, Saint James, and other places, never to come back to his family and profession. When he returned to Majorca he purchased a Muslim slave in order to learn Arabic from him.[11] For the next nine years, until 1274, he engaged in study and contemplation in relative solitude. He read extensively in both Latin and Arabic, learning both Christian and Muslim theological and philosophical thought.[12]

Between 1271 and 1274 Llull wrote his first works, a compendium of the Muslim thinker Al-Ghazali's logic and the Llibre de contemplació en Déu (Book on the Contemplation of God), a lengthy guide to finding truth through contemplation.

In 1274, while staying at a hermitage on Puig de Randa, the form of the great book Llull was to write was finally given to him through divine revelation: a complex system that he named his Art, which would become the motivation behind most of his life's efforts.

Missionary work and education[]

Llull urged the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Europe,[13] along with most of his works, to convert Muslims and schismatic Christians.[14] He travelled through Europe to meet with popes, kings, and princes, trying to establish special colleges to prepare future missionaries.[15] In 1276 a language school for Franciscan missionaries was founded at Miramar, funded by the King of Majorca.[16]

About 1291 he went to Tunis, preached to the Saracens, disputed with them in philosophy, and after another brief sojourn in Paris, returned to the East as a missionary.[17] Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.[18][19]

He returned in 1308, reporting that the conversion of Muslims should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. He finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean (Aramaic) at the universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris, and Salamanca as well as at the Papal Court.[18]

Llull and the Immaculate Conception[]

Following the favourable attitude of some Franciscan theologians, Llull's position on this subject was of great importance because it paved the way for the doctrine of Duns Scotus, whom he met in 1297, after which he was given the nickname Doctor Illuminatus,[20] even if it seems that he had no direct influence on him. Llull is the first author to use the expression "Immaculate Conception" to designate the Virgin's exemption from original sin.[21] He appears to have been the first to teach this doctrine publicly at the University of Paris.

To explain this Marian privilege, Llull resorts to three arguments:

1. The Son of God could not become incarnate in a mother who was stained by sin in any way:

God and sin cannot be united in the one and same object... Thus the Blessed Virgin Mary did not contract original sin; rather she was sanctified in the instant in which the seed from which she was formed was detached from her parents.[22]

2. There had to be a certain likeness between the Son's generation without sin and the generation of his Mother:

The Blessed Virgin Mary should have been conceived without sin, so that her conception and that of her Son might have a like nature.[23]

3. The second creation, that is the Redemption, which began with Christ and Mary, had to happen under the sign of the most total purity, as was the case with the first creation:

Just as Adam and Eve remained in innocence until the original sin, so at the beginning of the new creation, when the Blessed Virgin Mary and her Son came into existence, it was fitting that the man and the Woman should be found in a state of innocence simpliciter, in an absolute way, without interruption, from the beginning until the end. Should the opposite have been the case, the new creation could not have begun. It is clear, however, that it did have a beginning, and therefore the Blessed Virgin was conceived without original sin.[24]

In a sermon entitled The Fruit of Mary's Womb, Llull states that,

The blessed fruit of our Lady's womb is Jesus Christ, who is true God and true man. He is God the Son, and he is man, the Son of our Lady. The man, her Son, is the blessed fruit because he is God the Son; for it is true that the goodness of the Son who is God and the goodness of the Son who is man are joined together and united in one person, who is Jesus Christ. And the goodness of the man, Mary's Son, is an instrument of the Son, who is God.[25]

Death[]

In 1314, at the age of 82, Llull traveled again to Tunis, possibly prompted by the correspondence between King James II of Aragon and al-Lihyani, the Hafsid caliph, indicating that the caliph wished to convert to Christianity. Whereas Llull had been met with difficulties during his previous visits to North Africa, he was allowed to operate this time without interference from the authorities due to the improved relations between Tunis and Aragon.[26]

His last work is dated December 1315 in Tunis. The circumstances of his death remain unknown. He probably died sometime between then and March 1316, either in Tunis, on the ship on the return voyage, or in Majorca upon his return.[27] Llull's tomb, created in 1448, is in the Franciscan church in Palma, Majorca.[28]

Works[]

Llull’s Art[]

Llull’s Art (in Latin Ars) is at the center of his thought and undergirds his entire corpus. It is a system of universal logic based on a set of general principles activated in a combinatorial process. It can be used to prove statements about God and Creation (i.e. God is a Trinity). Often the Art formulates these statements as questions and answers (i.e., Q: Is there a Trinity in God? A: Yes.). It works cumulatively through an iterative process; statements about God's nature must be proved for each of His essential attributes in order to prove the statement true for God (i.e., Goodness is threefold, Greatness is threefold, Eternity is threefold, Power is threefold, etc.).

What sets Llull's system apart is its unusual use of letters and diagrams, giving it an algebraic or algorithmic character. He developed the Art over the course of many decades, writing new books to explain each new version. The Art's trajectory can be divided into two main phases, although each phase contains numerous variations. The first is sometimes called the Quaternary Phase (1274 - 1290) and the second the Ternary Phase (1290 - 1308).[29]

Quaternary Phase[]

The two main works of the Quaternary Phase are the Ars compendiosa inveniendi veritatem (ca. 1274) and the Ars demonstrativa (ca. 1283).[30] The Ars demonstrativa has twelve main figures. A set of sixteen principles, or 'dignities' (divine attributes) comprise the general foundation for the system's operation. These are contained in the first figure (Figure A) and assigned letters (B through R). The rest of the figures enable the user to take these principles and elaborate to demonstrate the truth of statements. Figure T is important because it contains "relational principles"(i.e. minority, majority, equality), also assigned letters. The Art then lists combinations of letters as a sort of visual aid for the process of working through every possible combination of principles. Figure S displays the Augustinian powers of the soul (will, intellect, and memory) and their acts (willing, understanding, remembering). Figure S was eliminated from the Art after 1290. Even in subsequent versions of the Art Llull maintained that the powers of the soul needed to be in alignment for a proper operation of the Art. This differentiates Llull's system from Aristotelian logic. Because classical logic did not take the powers of the soul into account it was ill-equipped to handle theological issues, in Llull's view.

Ternary Phase[]

Llull inaugurated the Ternary Phase with two works written in 1290: the Ars inventiva veritatis and the Art amativa.[31] The culmination of this phase came in 1308 with a finalized version of the Art called the Ars generalis ultima. In the same year Llull wrote an abbreviated version called the Ars brevis. In these works Llull revised the Art to have only four main figures. He reduced the number of divine principles in the first figure to nine (goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth, glory). Figure T also now has nine relational principles (difference, concordance, contrariety, beginning, middle, end, majority, equality, minority), reduced from fifteen. Llull kept the combinatorial aspect of the process.

Correlatives[]

Lull introduced an aspect of the system that called the "correlatives" just before the final transition to the Ternary Phase. The correlatives first appear in a work called the Lectura super figuras Artis demonstrativae (c.1285-7) and came to undergird his formulation of the nature of being.[32] The doctrine of correlatives stipulates that everything, at the level of being, has a threefold structure: agent, patient, act. For example, the divine principle "goodness" consists of "that which does good" (agent), "that which receives good" (patient), and "to do good" (act). Llull developed a system of Latin suffixes to express the correlatives, i.e. bonitas (goodness); bonificans, bonificatus, bonificare. This became the basis for proving that the divine principles are distinct yet equivalent in God (each principle has the same underlying threefold structure, yet retains its own unique correlatives). This supports the combinatorial operation of the Art (i.e., this means that in God goodness is greatness and greatness is goodness, goodness is eternity and eternity is goodness, etc.), the Lullian proof of the Trinity (each divine principle has the three correlatives and together the principles comprise the Godhead, therefore the Godhead is threefold) and the Incarnation (the active and passive correlatives are equivalent to matter and form, and the trinitarian unfolding of being occurs on all levels of reality).[33]

Other Works[]

Influence of Islam and Early Works[]

It has been pointed out that the Art's combinatorial mechanics bear a resemblance to zairja, a device used by medieval Arab astrologers.[34][35] The Art's reliance on divine attributes also has a certain similarity to the contemplation of the ninety-nine Names of God in the Muslim tradition.[36] Llull's familiarity with the Islamic intellectual tradition is evidenced by the fact that his first work (1271-2) was a compendium of Al-Ghazali's logic.[37]

Dialogues[]

From early in his career Llull composed dialogues to enact the procedure of the Art.[38] This is linked to the fact that Llull conceived the Art as an instrument to convert all the non-Christians to Christianity. His earliest and most well known dialogue is the Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, written in Catalan the 1270's and later translated into Latin. It is framed as a meeting of three wise men (a Muslim, a Jew, and a Christian) and a Gentile in the woods. They learn about the Lullian method when they encounter a set of trees with leaves inscribed with Lullian principles. Lady Intelligence appears and informs them of the properties of the trees and the rules for implementing the leaves. The wise men use the trees to prove their respective Articles of Faith to the Gentile (although some of the Islamic tenets cannot be proved with the Lullian procedure) and in the end the Gentile is converted to Christianity. Llull composed many other dialogues. Later in his career when he became concerned with potentially heretical activity in the Arts Faculty of the University of Paris, he began to write "disputations" with philosophers as interlocutors.[39][40]He also created a character for himself and he stars in many of these dialogues as the Christian wise man (for instance: Liber de quaestione valde alta et profunda, composed in 1311).

Trees[]

Llull structured many of his works around trees. In some, like the Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, the "leaves" of the trees stand for the combinatorial elements (principles) of the Art. In other works a series of trees shows how the Art generates all ("encyclopedic") knowledge. The Tree of Science (1295-6) comprises sixteen trees ranging from earthly and moral to divine and pedagogical.[41] Each tree is divided into seven parts (roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits). The roots always consist of the Lullian divine principles and from there the tree grows into the differentiated aspects of its respective category of reality.[42]

Novels[]

Llull also wrote narrative prose drawing on the literary traditions of his time (epic, romance) to express the Art. These works were intended to communicate the potentially complex operations of the Art to a lay audience. Blanquerna (c.1276-83) is perhaps his most well known work. Felix (1287-9) is Llull's other notable novel, although it was not widely circulated during his lifetime and only available in Catalan. It is formulated as a sort of Bildungsroman in which Felix, the main character, begins on a journey at the instigation of his father who has written the "Book of Wonders". The book is divided into ten chapters (echoing the encyclopedic range of the Tree of Science) as Felix gains knowledge: God, angels, heavens, elements, plans, minerals, animals, man, Paradise, and Hell. It turns out to be a metafiction, as Felix's journey ends at a monastery where he relates the "Book of Wonders" now embellished and fused with the account of his own adventures.[43]

Misattributions[]

A considerable body of work on esoteric subjects was misattributed to Llull in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The oeuvre of the pseudo-Llull (and, by extension, that of the actual Llull) was influential among Hermeticists, Gnostics, and other Esoterics. Llull himself explicitly condemned many of the subjects, such as alchemy, that he is purported to have written about.[44]

Reputation and posthumous reception[]

Since Llull's first writings, he has had strong proponents as well as detractors. The Roman Catholic inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich condemned 100 theories or ideas of Llull as errors in 1376. Pope Gregory XI also formally condemned 20 of his books in 1376[45] and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV,[17] although Pope Martin V reversed the condemnation of Pope Gregory XI in 1416.[45] Despite these condemnations, Llull himself remained in good standing with the Church.

Llull has had a canonization process open in the Catholic Church since the times of Philip II (16th century). King Philip was one of the promoters of this process. The Spanish king was extremely fond of his work and used parts of it in the creation of the monasterio del Escorial. Llull's works were prohibited by the Spanish Inquisition under the same king Philip, for he considered that "non-initiates could not understand them". Copies of the works were safely stored in the Library of El Escorial and were consulted by Spanish scholars.

Within the Franciscan Order Llull is honoured as a martyr. He was beatified in 1847 by Pope Pius IX. His feast day was assigned to 30 June and is celebrated by the Third Order of St. Francis.[46]

Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were established at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as la llengua de Llull, as other languages might be referred to as "Shakespeare's language" (English), la langue de Molière (French), la lengua de Cervantes (Spanish), a língua de Camões (Portuguese), or die Sprache Goethes (German).

The logo of the Spanish Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named after the philosopher.

Mathematics, statistics, voting, and classification[]

With the discovery in 2001 of his lost manuscripts, Ars notandi, Ars eleccionis, and Alia ars eleccionis, Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Nicolas de Condorcet independently proposed centuries later.[47] Llull's electoral methods are based on pairwise contests between candidates rather than the candidates’ ranks used in the Borda count. Llull's 1299 method is similar to Copeland's method (which is based on the number of victories in pairwise contests and proposed 650 years later).[48] The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull, who devised the earliest known Condorcet method in 1299.[47] Another remarkable advances of Llull’s works on elections are the matrix notation, in this context often attributed to Charles Dodgson, and the warning against so-called strategic voting, that is, declaring false preferences in order to thwart the election of competitors to favorites.[49]

Also, Llull is recognized as a pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz.[50]

Llull's systems of organizing concepts using devices such as trees, ladders, and wheels, have been analyzed as classification systems.[51]

Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.[6][7]

Art and architecture[]

The inspiration of Llull's mnemonic graphic cartwheels, reaching into contemporary art and culture, is demonstrated by Daniel Libeskind's architectural construction of the 2003 completed Studio Weil in Port d'Andratx, Majorca. "Studio Weil, a development of the virtuality of these mnemonic wheels which ever center and de-center the universal and the personal, is built to open these circular islands which float like all artwork in the oceans of memory."[52]

Modern fiction[]

Paul Auster refers to Llull (as Raymond Lull) in his memoir The Invention of Solitude in the second part, The Book of Memory. Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal, is a major character in The Box of Delights, a children's novel by poet John Masefield. He is also a major influence on the fictional character Zermano in Thomas Sanchez's The Day of the Bees, and his name, philosophies, and quotes from his writings appear throughout the novel. A fictionalized account of the aftermath of his stoning at Tunis, set aboard the Genoese ship that returned him to Mallorca, is portrayed in Aldous Huxley's short story "The Death of Lully."[53]

Translations[]

  • Ramon Llull's New Rhetoric, text and translation of Llull's 'Rethorica Nova', edited and translated by Mark D. Johnston, Davis, California: Hermagoras Press, 1994
  • Selected Works of Ramon Llull (1232‑1316), edited and translated by Anthony Bonner, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1985, two volumes XXXI + 1330 pp. (Contents: vol. 1: The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, pp. 93–305; Ars Demonstrativa, pp. 317–567; Ars Brevis, pp. 579–646; vol. 2: Felix: or the Book of Wonders, pp. 659–1107; Principles of Medicine pp. 1119–1215; Flowers of Love and Flowers of Intelligence, pp. 1223–1256)
  • Doctor Illuminatus: A Ramon Llull Reader, edited and translated by Anthony Bonner, with a new translation of The Book of the Lover and the Beloved by Eve Bonner, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1994

See also[]

References[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Anglicised as Raymond Lully, Raymond Lull; Latinized as Raimundus, or Raymundus Lullus, or Raimundo Lulio, or Lullius

Citations[]

  1. ^ Frances Yates, "Lull and Bruno" (1982), in Collected Essays: Lull & Bruno, vol. I, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b The History of Philosophy, Vol. IV: Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Leibniz by Frederick C. Copleston (1958).
  3. ^ Anthony Bonner (ed.), Doctor illuminatus: A Ramon Llull Reader, Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 82.
  4. ^ Born 1232 per Mark D. Johnston in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge, 1998. Older sources (such as versions of Encyclopædia Britannica at least up to 1955) give 1235; the current Britannica gives 1232/33.
  5. ^ Badia, Lola; Santanach, Joan; Soler, Albert (2016). Ramon Llull as a Vernacular Writer: Communicating a New Kind of Knowledge. Woodbridge: Tamesis.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Anthony Bonner (2007), The art and logic of Ramon Llull, Brill Academic Pub, p. 290, ISBN 978-90-04-16325-6
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Donald Knuth (2006), The Art of Computer Programming: Generating all trees, 4–4, Addison-Wesley Professional, p. 56, ISBN 978-0-321-33570-8
  8. ^ Bonner 2007, p. 1.
  9. ^ Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" (an annotated Vita coaetanea) at 10–11, in Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus (1985).
  10. ^ Llull, Ramon (2010). A Contemporary Life, Edited and translated by Anthony Bonner. Barcelona/Woodbridge: Tamesis. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9781855661998.
  11. ^ Llull, Ramon (2010). A Contemporary Life, Edited and translated by Anthony Bonner. Barcelona/Woodbridge: Tamesis. pp. 37–39. ISBN 9781855661998.
  12. ^ Churchill, Leigh (2004). The Age of Knights & Friars, Popes & Reformers. Milton Keynes: Authentic Media. ISBN 1-84227-279-9, 9781842272794. p. 190
  13. ^ Mark David Johnston (1996). The Evangelical Rhetoric of Ramon Llull: Lay Learning and Piety in the Christian West Around 1300. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–. ISBN 978-0-19-509005-5.
  14. ^ Blum, Paul Richard (28 June 2013). Philosophy of Religion in the Renaissance. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-1-4094-8071-6.
  15. ^ Paul Richard Blum: Philosophy of Religion in the Renaissance. Ashgate 2010, 1-14
  16. ^ "Who was Ramon Llull?", Centre de Documentació Ramon Llull, Universitat de Barcelona
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Turner, William. "Raymond Lully." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 31 January 2019
  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Albrecht Classen (5 March 2018). Toleration and Tolerance in Medieval European Literature. Taylor & Francis. pp. 280–. ISBN 978-1-351-00106-9.
  19. ^ Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" (the Vita coaetanea augmented and annotated) at 10-11, 34-37, in Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus (1985).
  20. ^ AmericanCatholic.org "Blessed Raymond Lull"
  21. ^ Mary in the Middle Ages: the Blessed Virgin Mary in the Thought of Medieval Latin Theologians, Fr. Luigi Gambero, S.M., Ignatius Press: San Francisco, 2005.
  22. ^ Disputatio Eremitae et Raimundi super aliquibus qustionibus Sententiarum Magistri Lombardi, q. 96, I; Opera Omnia, vol. 4, Mainz, 1737, pp. 84–84
  23. ^ Disputatio Eremitae..., q. 96, 3; Opera Omnia, 4:84
  24. ^ Disputatio Eremitae..., q. 96, 4; Opera Omnia, 4:84
  25. ^ Liber de Ave Maria, sermo 5, I; Corpus Christianorum Mediaevalis 76, 95–96
  26. ^ Lower, Michael (2009). "Ibn al-Lihyani: sultan of Tunis and would-be Christian convert (1311–18)". Mediterranean Historical Review. 24 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1080/09518960903000744. S2CID 161432419.
  27. ^ Llull, Ramon (2010). A Contemporary Life, Edited and translated by Anthony Bonner. Barcelona/Woodbridge: Tamesis. pp. 10–11. ISBN 9781855661998.
  28. ^ "Basilica Sant Francesc", Illes Balears
  29. ^ This terminology was coined by Anthony Bonner: Bonner, Anthony (2007). The Art and Logic of Ramon Llull: A User's Guide. Leiden: Brill.
  30. ^ Bonner, 2007, 26.
  31. ^ Bonner, 2007, 121.
  32. ^ Gayà, Jordi. “La teoría luliana de los correlativos. Historia de su formación conceptual.” Universität Freiburg im Breisgau, 1979.
  33. ^ Pring-Mill, R.D.F. (1955). "The Trinitarian World Picture of Ramon Lull". Romanistisches Jahrbuch. 7: 229–256.
  34. ^ Lohr, Charles. “Christianus arabicus, cuius nomen Raimundus Lullus.” Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie 31 (1984): 64-65.
  35. ^ Lohr, Charles. “Christianus arabicus, cuius nomen Raimundus Lullus.” Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie 31 (1984): 63.
  36. ^ Charles Lohr, Raimundus Lullus' Compendium Logicae Algazelis. Quellen, Lehre und Stellung in der Geschichte der Logik (Tesi doctoral, Freiburg i. Br., 1967), 93-130.
  37. ^ Friedlein, Roger (2004). Der Dialog bei Ramon Llull: Literarische Gestaltung als apologetische Strategie. Tübingen: M. Niemeyer. ISBN 3484523182.
  38. ^ van Steenberghen, Fernand (1960). "La signification de l'oeuvre anti-averroiste de Raymond Lull". Estudios Lulianos. 4: 113–28.
  39. ^ Imbach, Ruedi (1987). “Lulle face aux Averroïstes parisiens,” in Raymond Lulle et le pays d’Oc. Toulouse: Privat, pp. 261–82.
  40. ^ English translation by Yanis Dambergs: https://lullianarts.narpan.net/TreeOfScience/TreeOfScience-1.pdf and https://lullianarts.narpan.net/TreeOfScience/TreeOfScience2.pdf
  41. ^ Anthony Bonner, "The structure of the Arbor scientiae". Arbor Scientiae: der Baum des Wissens von Ramon Lull. Akten des Internationalen Kongresses aus Anlass des 40-jährigen Jubiläums des Raimundus-Lullus-Instituts der Universität Freiburg i. Br., ed. Fernando Domínguez Reboiras, Pere Villalba Varneda and Peter Walter, "Instrumenta Patristica et Mediaevalia. Subsidia Lulliana" 1 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2002), pp. 21-34.
  42. ^ Dominguez, Fernando. "Felix Summary". Ramon Llull Database. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  43. ^ Llull, Ramon. Doctor illuminatus, (Anthony Bonner, ed.) Princeton University Press, 1993 ISBN 9780691000916 p. 59
  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Dictionary of World Biography, edited by Frank N. Magill and Alison Aves, page 610 | [1]
  45. ^ Habig, Marion. (Ed.). (1959). The Franciscan Book of Saints. Franciscan Herald Press.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b G. Hägele & F. Pukelsheim (2001). "Llull's writings on electoral systems". Studia Lulliana. 41: 3–38. Archived from the original on 2006-02-07.
  47. ^ Tangian, Andranik (2014). Mathematical theory of democracy. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer. p. 80. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-38724-1. ISBN 978-3-642-38723-4.
  48. ^ Tangian, Andranik (2020). Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 98. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6. ISBN 978-3-030-39690-9.
  49. ^ 'Knowledge representation: logical, philosophical, and computational foundations, by J.F. Sowa. Brooks/Cole, 2000 (page: 7)'
  50. ^ T.D. Walker (1996). "Medieval Faceted Knowledge Classification: Ramon Llull's Trees of Science". Knowledge Organization. 23/4 (4): 199–205. doi:10.5771/0943-7444-1996-4-199.
  51. ^ Libeskind, Daniel. "Studio Daniel Libeskind:Studio Weil". Studio Daniel Libeskind. Retrieved 2011-03-14.
  52. ^ Huxley, Aldous (1920). Limbo. Chatto & Windus.

Sources[]

  • Walter W. Artus, "Ramon Lull: His Anticipation of the Influence on Early Modern Efforts Towards a Universal Language", Semiotics 1983, pgs. 109-120.
  • Lola Badia, Joan Santanach and Albert Soler, Ramon Llull as a Vernacular Writer, London: Tamesis, 2016.
  • William Theodore Aquila Barber, Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions, London: C.H. Kelly, 1903.
  • Anthony Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton University 1985), includes The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, The Book of the Lover and the Beloved, The Book of the Beasts, and Ars brevis; as well as Bonner's "Historical Background and Life" at 1–44, "Llull's Thought" at 45–56, "Llull's Influence: The History of Lullism" at 57–71.
  • Anthony Bonner, The Art and Logic of Ramon Llull: A User's Guide, Leiden: Brill, 2007.
  • Umberto Eco (2016). "The Ars Magna by Ramon Llull". Contributions to Science. 12 (1): 47–50. doi:10.2436/20.7010.01.243. ISSN 2013-410X.
  • Alexander Fidora and Josep E. Rubio, Raimundus Lullus, An Introduction to His Life, Works and Thought, Turnhout: Brepols, 2008.
  • Martin Gardner, Logic Machines and Diagrams (McGraw-Hill Book Company 1958).
  • Martin Gardner, Science, Good, Bad, and Bogus (Prometheus Books 1989).
  • J. N. Hillgarth, Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France (Oxford University 1971).
  • Mark D. Johnston, The Spiritual Logic of Ramón Llull, Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1987.
  • Antonio Monserat Quintana, La Visión Lulliana del Mundo Derecho (Palma de Mallorca: Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics 1987).
  • Pereira Michela, The Alchemical Corpus attributed to Raymond Lull, London: The Warburg Institute, 1989.
  • Lorenzo Riber, Raimundo Lulio (Barcelona: Editorial Labor 1935, 1949).
  • William Thomas Walsh, Characters of the Inquisition, Tan Books and Publishers, Inc (1940). ISBN 0-89555-326-0
  • Frances Yates includes a brief chapter on Lull in "The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age" (London, Ark Paperbacks 1979).
  • Frances Yates, "Lull and Bruno" (1982), in Collected Essays: Lull & Bruno, vol. I, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  • Samuel Marinus Zwemer, Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems, New York and London : Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902; reprinted by Diggory Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84685-301-2

External links[]

Retrieved from ""