Timeline of Cluj-Napoca

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Timeline of Cluj-Napoca
Roman Napoca on Tabula Peutingeriana
Ruins of Napoca
City coat of arms (starting 1377)
Cluj in 1617 by Joris Hoefnagel
Cluj Bridge Gate in 1860
Central Cluj in 1930
St. Michael's Church and Matthias Corvinus Monument in 2012
Cluj Arena in 2012

The following detailed sequence of events covers the timeline of Cluj-Napoca, a city in Transylvania, Romania.

Cluj-Napoca (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈkluʒ naˈpoka] (About this soundlisten), German: Klausenburg; Hungarian: Kolozsvár, Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈkoloʒvaːr] (About this soundlisten); Medieval Latin: Castrum Clus, Claudiopolis; and Yiddish: קלויזנבו��ג‎, Kloiznburg), commonly known as Cluj, is located in the Someșul Mic River valley, roughly equidistant from Bucharest (324 kilometres (201 miles)), Budapest (351 km (218 mi)) and Belgrade (322 km (200 mi)). Throughout its long history, the area around Cluj-Napoca was part of many empires and kingdoms, including the Roman Empire (as part of the Dacia province and later a sub-division of Dacia Porolissensis), Gepidia, Avaria, the Hungarian Kingdom, the Habsburg Monarchy, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania. From 1790–1848 and 1861–1867, it was the official capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania.

In modern times, the city holds the status of municipiu, is the seat of Cluj County in the north-western part of Romania, and continues to be considered the unofficial capital of the historical province of Transylvania. Cluj continues to be one of the most important academic, cultural, industrial and business centres in Romania. Among other institutions, it hosts the country's largest university, Babeș-Bolyai University, with its famous botanical garden. The current boundaries of the municipality contain an area of 179.52 square kilometres (69.31 sq mi). The Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area has a population of 411,379 people, while the population of the peri-urban area (Romanian: zona periurbană) exceeds 420,000 residents, making it one of the most populous cities in Romania.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by with reliable sources.

2nd century[]

Napoca in Roman Dacia
Text of Roman milliarium from 108, describing the construction of the road from Potaissa to Napoca, by request of the Emperor Trajan. It indicates the distance of ten thousand feet (P.M.X.) to Potaissa. The complete inscription is: "Imp[erator]/ Caesar Nerva/ Traianus Aug[ustus]/ Germ[anicus] Dacicus/ pontif[ex] maxim[us]/ [sic] pot[estate] XII co[n]s[ul] V/ imp[erator] VI p[ater] p[atriae] fecit/ per coh[ortem] I Fl[aviam] Vlp[iam]/ Hisp[anam] mil[liariam] c[ivium] R[omanorum] eq[uitatam]/ a Potaissa Napo/cam / m[ilia] p[assuum] X".
  • 101 - After gaining support from the Roman Senate, emperor Trajan leads the Roman legions across the Danube into Dacia, starting the First Dacian War.[1]
  • 102 - Hostilities between Roman Empire and Dacian Kingdom cease and the two parties reach a peace agreement.[2]
  • 105 - Trajan starts the second Dacian campaign with aim of expansion and conquest.[1]
  • 105-106 - During the second campaign, the Romans build Castra of Napoca.[3]
  • 106 - 11 August
  • 107
    • After a directive from Trajan, Cohors I Hispanorum miliaria[6] begins the work to connect Napoca with Potaissa (as part of via Traiana Pataesina),[7] along the pre-existing salt road.[8]
    • June: Trajan returns to Rome after the successful Dacian campaign, starting a series of celebrations.[9]
  • 108
    • Napoca is mentioned as a vicus, an ad hoc provincial civilian settlement, which sprang up close to the military castra.[10]
    • The work to the Roman road connecting Napoca to Potaissa finishes,[8] increasing significantly the importance of Napoca
    • The town becomes the end of the central spine from which all of the Roman forts in Northwest Dacia can be reached.[11]
  • c.108-124
    • A bridge is constructed across Samus River.[12]
    • A brooch workshop is built using timber.[13]
    • Town starts to extend to the south, and the surveyors begin to lay out the main streets: decumanus maximus (east-west) and the cardo (north-south).[8]
  • 117
    • 8 August: Trajan dies in Selinus, Cilicia
    • 10 August: Hadrian becomes Roman Emperor
  • 118 - After the battles with Roxolani and the Iazyges where Hadrian himself participates, the provinces of Moesia and Dacia are reorganized, Trajan's original province of Dacia being relabelled Dacia Superior.[14]
  • 124
    • Emperor Hadrian visits Napoca in Dacia,[3] grants the title and rank of municipium[15][full citation needed] (as municipium Aelium Hadrianum Napocenses[16]) and attaches it to his tribe, the Sergia.[17]
    • Province of Dacia is reorganized, and an additional province called Dacia Porolissensis is created in the northern portion of Dacia Superior[18][14]
    • Napoca becomes the location of the military high command in Dacia Porolissensis[19] and its capital.[20]
    • becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.
  • 131 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[21]
  • 138 - 11 July: Antoninus Pius becomes emperor at Hadrian's death.
  • 151 - Marcus Macrinius Vindex becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[21]
  • 157 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[21]
  • 161 - 8 March: Marcus Aurelius succeeds Antoninus Pius as Emperor.
  • 161-162 - Volu[---] becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[21]
  • 164 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[21]
  • 166
    • Pressures building along the Danube frontier force Marcus Aurelius to set up an overarching province, Tres Daciae (Three Dacias), which fuses the three Dacia provinces into one and is commanded by a consular legate.
    • The three provinces, including Dacia Porolissesnsis, still remain as separate entities, each one governed by a praesidial procurator, who then reports to the proconsular governor.
    • Sextus Calpurnius Agricola becomes the first Legatus Augusti pro praetore (consular legate) of the Tres Daciae.
  • 168 - Marcus Claudius Fronto becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • 170 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • 173 - Lucius Aemilius Carus becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • 176 - Gaius Arrius Antoninus becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • 177
    • Marcus Aurelius bestows the title of Augustus on his son, Commodus, giving him the same status as his own and formally starting to share power.
    • Publius Helvius Pertinax becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • c.178–179 - Marcus Valerius Maximianus becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • 180
    • 17 March: Marcus Aurelius dies and Commodus remains sole emperor
    • Gaius Vettius Sabinianus Julius Hospes becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • c.180 - the city gaines the status of a colonia as Colonia Aurelia Napoca.[17][24]
  • c.180–190 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • c.180-192
    • Eocene limestone is extracted from the stone quarries around Hoia Hill to the west of the town[25] on a large scale.[26]
    • The city wall around the precinct is constructed using large blocks of limestone in opus quadratum, covering a surface of around 25 hectares.[13]
    • A brooch workshop is built using stone.[13]
  • 182 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[21]
  • 185
    • Dacian revolt in the province, Free Dacians living outside the borders also defeated.[27]
    • Commodus' legates devastate a territory some 8 km (5 mi) deep along the north of the Castrum Gilău (near Napoca) to establish a buffer in the hope of preventing further barbarian incursions.[28]
  • c.185 - Gaius Pescennius Niger becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • c.190 - G. C(...) Hasta becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 191 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • 192 - 31 December: Emperor Commodus is assassinated.
  • 193 - 14 April: Septimius Severus' legion, XIV Gemina, proclaims him Emperor.
  • c.193-211: The villa rustica from Apahida (near Napoca) is in use.[29]
  • c.193 - Quintus Aurelius Polus Terentianus becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 195 - Publius Septimius Geta becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • c.197 - Pollienus Auspex becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 198 - Caracalla is appointed by his father, Septimius Severus, as joint Augustus and full Emperor.
  • c.198–209 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • c.198–209 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • 200 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • c.200 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]

3rd century[]

Napoca in the Roman Dacia fragment of the 1st–4th century AD Tabula Peutingeriana (upper center)
Ruined buildings with hypocaust from the Roman Napoca
  • c.200-230 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • 204 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 205 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 206 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 208 - Gaius Julius Maximinus becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 211 - 4 February: Caracalla and his brother Geta reign together after their father's death.
  • c.211-217 - The road from Napoca to Porolissum is repaired.[31]
  • 212 - Lucius Marius Perpetuus becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[23]
  • 215 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • 217 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • c.217 - becomes procurator of Dacia Porolissensis.[22]
  • 222 - 11 March: Severus Alexander becomes Emperor.
  • c.222 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • 235 - 20 March 235: Maximinus Thrax succeeds to the rule of Roman Empire, after Severus Alexander is assassinated.
  • c.235-238 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • c.235-238 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • c.235-238 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • 236-238 - Maximinus Thrax campaigns in Dacia against the Carpi.[32]
  • c.238 - becomes the consular legate of the Three Dacias.[30]
  • 242-247 - Carpi are attacking Dacia and Moesia Inferior.[33]
  • 248-250 - Dacia is attacked by the Germanic tribes of the Goths, Taifals and Bastarns together with the Carpi.[34]
  • 253
    • 22 October: Gallienus and Valerian start ruling jointly the Roman Empire.
    • Monetary circulation starts to decrease in Dacia and Pannonia.[35]
  • 257 - Gallienus claims the title Dacicus Maximus after repeated victories over the Carpi and associated Dacian tribes.[36]
  • 258 - Dacia is attacked by Carpi and Goths.[34]
  • 258-260 - A percentage of the cohorts from the V Macedonica and XIII Gemina legions are transferred from Dacia to Pannonia.[37]
  • 260 - Monetary circulation[35] and raising of inscribed monuments[38] have a dramatic drop in Dacia.
  • c.260 - Repairs of the castra fortifications are conducted on the northern border of Dacia Porolissensis.[35]
  • 263 - Dacia is attacked by Carpi and Goths.[34]
  • 267 - Dacia is attacked by Goths and Herules.[34]
  • 269 - Dacia is attacked by Goths and Herules.[34]
  • 270 - September: Aurelian becomes Roman Emperor.
  • 271-275 - Aurelian evacuates the Roman troops and civilian administration from Dacia, and establishes Dacia Aureliana with its capital at Serdica in Lower Moesia.[33][39]
  • c.291
  • 291-300 - Thervingi continue migrating into north-eastern Dacia but are opposed by the Carpi and the non-Romanized Dacians.[43]
  • c.295 - Goths defeat the Carpi, pushing them southward.[44]

4th century[]

  • 295-320s - After a peace treaty with the Romans, Goths proceed to settle down in parts of Roman Dacia (starting to be called Gothia), dividing some of the land with the Taifals,[45] and co-existing with the remaining semi-Romanized population.[43]
  • c.300-350 - Ruralization of the urban life in Dacia.[46]
  • c.350 - Sântana de Mureş-Černjachov culture/Goths enter intra-Carpathian Transylvania.[47]
  • 376 - Huns arrive, attacking the Thervingi[48] and leading to a collapse of the Gothic dominance in the area.[49]

5th century[]

Gepid Thesaurus from Apahida
  • c.401-420 - Gepidic center on the plains north-west of the Meseş Mountains.[50][51]
  • 420s - Huns impose their authority over the Gepids,[51] but the latter remain united under the rule of their kings.[52]
  • c.440 - Ardaric, favored by the Hunic king, becomes the leader of the Gepids.[52]
  • c.435–453 - Huns fight the Alans, Vandals, and Quadi, forcing them toward the Roman Empire and making Pannonia their center.[53]
  • 453 - Attila, King of the Huns dies and the Hunnic Empire starts to disintegrate.
  • c.454
    • Ardaric initiates an uprising of the Gepids against the Huns.[54][full citation needed]
    • Gepids defeat the Huns in Pannonia, regain their independence[55] and are able to start to expand eastwards, into Dacia.[56][53]
  • c.475-500

6th century[]

  • c.501-568
    • More Gepid power centers appear in Transylvania.[33]
    • New settlements appear along the Someş, Mureş, and Târnava rivers, reflecting a period of tranquillity in Gepidia.[58]
    • A "circle" of Gepid settlements develops around Napoca.[59]
    • Gepids start to adopt Arian Christianity through their connection with the Goths.[60]
    • Farming is the primary activity, but looms, combs, and other items are produced in local workshops.[58]
    • Gepidia is trading with faraway regions such as Crimea, Mazovia or Scandinavia.[61]
  • 568 - The Avar invasion ends the independent Gepidia.[62]
  • c.568 - Carpathian Basin is incorporated in the Avar Khaganate established by khagan Bayan I.
  • c.599-600 - Gepids under assimilation but settlements still exist within Avaria.[63][64]

7th century[]

Avars, Slavs and Bulgars in the areas around Transylvania
  • c.600-800 - Avars bring with them and allow Slavs to settle inside Transylvania.

8th century[]

  • c. 700-800 - Center and northern Transylvania under Moravian influence.[33]
  • 791–795 - Plunder of the Avar state by the Franks of Charlemagne.[65]
  • 794 - Avars, in small numbers, and mixed with Slavs, still inhabit parts of Transylvania.[65]
  • 796 - Avar Khaganate suffers a crippling blow by the Franks.[65]

9th century[]

  • c.796-803 - Bulgars under Khan Krum unite with Franks to crush the Avar Khaganate.[65]
  • c.803
    • Transylvanian Avars are subjugated by the Bulgars under Khan Krum
    • Transylvania and eastern Pannonia are incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire.
    • Salt mines of Transylvania under Bulgar control.
  • c.850-900

10th century[]

The Hungarian Conquest in the Illuminated Chronicle
The Hungarians' arrival in the Carpathian Basin depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle
  • c. 895–902 - Magyars (Hungarians) commence the conquest of the Carpathian Basin defeating and conquering the lands of Menumorut and later Gelou
  • c. 902-950 - Area falls under the rule of  [hu; ro] (Tétény) and his descendants [72][73] (within newly formed Principality of Hungary)
  • c. 900-1000
    • A small settlement appears on the ruins of Roman Napoca covering less than 3rd of the ancient site, with Roman fortifications being used as a source of construction materials.[74]
    • The settlement has four unequal sides (northern side 250 m, western side 223 m, southern side 300m, eastern side 197 m).[74]
    • A cemetery is active 600–1300 m from Napoca.[75]
  • 1000 - Area becomes part of the Kingdom of Hungary, as Stephen I of Hungary is crowned as the first king and adopts Christianity.[76][77]

11th century[]

  • c. 1001-1038
    • Stephen I establishes an administrative system of counties based on fortresses (or comitati) using the French model, with four of them in Transylvania, including the Kolozs County.[78]
    • Each county (or comitatus (Latin)) is led by a count (comes (Latin) or Ispán (Hungarian)).[78]
    • The new Ispán of Kolozs (comes Clusiensis) is responsible with the protection of the salt production in nearby Koloszokna.[74]
    • A fort is erected at Kolozsmonostor (3 km from the ancient Napoca) to serve as the count's residence.[79]
  • 1009 - Diocese of Transylvania is established.[80]
  • 1068 - Kolozsmonostor fort and settlement are destroyed by fire during an incursion of the Pechenegs in Transylvania.[81]
  • 1080s-1090s
    • Kolozsmonostor fort reconstructed, having its earth-and-beam wall raised by three metres.[81]
    • Ladislaus I of Hungary settles Benedictine monks on the fort premises, who establish Kolozsmonostor Abbey, the first Benedictine monastery in Transylvania.[82][83][84]
    • First church is constructed in Kolozs.[85]

12th century[]

  • 1111-1113 - Mercurius, a distinguished nobleman who held the office during the reign of Coloman, King of Hungary (1095–1116),[86] is mentioned in two royal charters as "princeps Ultrasilvanus" (perhaps the first known Voivode of Transylvania)[87]
  • 1143 - The colonization of Transylvania by Germans commences under the reign of King Géza II of Hungary (1141–1162)
  • 1173 - Clus as a county name is recorded for the first time, in a document which mentions Thomas comes Clusiensis[88]
  • 1176 - Leustach of the Rátót clan becomes Voivode of Transylvania.
  • 1178 - Site "colonized" by newly arrived "Saxons".[89]
  • 1199 - Legforus becomes Voivode of Transylvania.

13th century[]

Mongol invasion of the Hungarian Kingdom depicted in Johannes de Thurocz's Chronica Hungarorum
  • 1213 - The first written mention of the city's current name – as a Royal Borough – under the Medieval Latin name Castrum Clus.[90]
  • 1241 - Both Kolozs and Kolozsmonostor are destroyed during First Mongol invasion of Hungary, with very few survivors.[91]
  • 1246 - The first recording for the Hungarian form Kolozsvár (uar / vár means "castle" in Hungarian).[92]
  • c. 1242-1275 - More German colonists arrive from Rhineland and Flanders, and are working to rebuild the fortress of Kolozs.[91]
  • 1275 - In a document of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, the village (Villa Kulusvar) is granted to Peter Monoszló, the Bishop of Transylvania.[93]
  • c. 1260-1290 - A new church in built in Kolozs in Late Romanesque style, on the site of the destroyed first church, and then starts to serve as the parochial church.[85]
  • 1285-1286 - Second Mongol invasion of Hungary

14th century[]

Seal of Cluj granted in 1377 by King Louis I of Hungary, with the inscription S[igilium] CIVIVM de CLVS WAR
  • 1316
  • 1332 - The first appearance of the Hungarian form Koloswar, as it underwent various phonetic changes over the years.[92]
  • 1348 - First usage of the Transylvanian Saxon name of Clusenburg/Clusenbvrg appeared.[92]
  • 1349 - A document signed by the archbishop of Avignon and fifteen other bishops grants the indulgence for those contributing to the illumination and furniture of the St. Michael's Church.
  • 1377 - King Louis I of Hungary grants to Cluj the coat of arms and seal, consisting of three towers, a city wall with a gate in silver on a blue background.
  • 1390
    • The altar of St. Michael's Church is inaugurated[94] and the church starts to be used as the new parochial church of Kolozs.[85]
    • The original church from the Old Town is given to friars of the Dominican Order.[85]

15th century[]

Interior of St. Michael's Church
  • 1405 - Through the privileges granted by Sigismund of Luxembourg, Cluj becomes a royal free city, is opting out from the jurisdiction of voivodes, vice-voivodes and royal judges, and obtains the right to elect a twelve-member jury every year.[95]
  • 1408 - First mention of the Transylvanian Saxon form Clausenburg.[92]
  • 1432 - St. Michael's Church is completed.[89]
  • 1442 - Dominican friars begin the construction of their monastery and to rebuild the old church in Gothic style.[85]
  • 1443 - 23 February: Matthias Corvinus is born in Cluj.
  • 1445 - John Hunyadi starts supporting the construction efforts of the Dominican friars, offering a guaranteed income of 50 cubes of salt from the salt mine of Szék.[85]
  • 1464 - 29 April: Matthias Corvinus becomes King of Hungary.
  • 1481 - First record of the presence of Jews living in Cluj.[96]

16th century[]

17th century[]

1617 engraving of Kolozsvár/Klausenburg by Joris Hoefnagel & son

18th century[]

  • 1715 - Construction of the  [ro] begins.[89]
  • 1785
  • 1790 - City becomes capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania.
  • 1792 - Hungarian Theatre founded.
  • 1798 - Large parts of the city destroyed by fire.[89]

19th century[]

The Kolozsvár/Klausenburg Bridge Gate in 1860
Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár/Klausenburg, c. 1900
  • 1803 - Bob Church consecrated.
  • 1812 -  [ro; fr] built.
  • 1828 -  [ro; hu] expanded.
  • 1829 - Evangelical-Lutheran Church built.
  • 1830s - Népkertnek Park (Central Park) opens.
  • 1845 - Town Hall built.[104][full citation needed]
  • 1848 - 25 December: City taken by Hungarian forces.[105][full citation needed]
  • 1869 - Institute of Agronomic Studies founded.
  • 1870
    • Railway to Budapest begins operating.[106]
    • Population: 26,382.[105]
  • 1872 - Franz Joseph University[107] and Botanical Garden founded.
  • 1880 - Population: 29,923 (70% of Hungarian ethnicity).[108]
  • 1887 - Neolog Synagogue built.
  • 1890 - Population: 32,739.[109][full citation needed]
  • 1895 -  [hu; ro] built.
  • 1900 - Population: 46,670.[89]

20th century[]

Inauguration of the Matthias Corvinus Monument in 1902
Romanian troops (Regiment 16 Dorobanți "Fălticeni") marching in Cluj, 1918
U Cluj football team on 27 October 1923
Dormition of the Theotokos Cathedral in 1940

21st century[]

See also[]

Part of a series on the
History of Romania
Coat of arms of Romania
Prehistory
Antiquity
Middle Ages (Early)
Early Modern Times
National Awakening
Kingdom of Romania
Socialist Republic of Romania
Post-Revolution
By topic
By historical region
Flag of Romania.svg Romania portal
  • v
  • t

References[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Oltean 2007, p. 54.
  2. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 56.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b MacKendrick 2000, p. 218.
  4. ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 5.
  5. ^ Bennett 2005, p. 166.
  6. ^ Lukács 2005, p. 15.
  7. ^ Bennett 2005, p. 169.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b c Wanner 2010, p. 85.
  9. ^ Bennett 2005, p. 105.
  10. ^ Wanner 2010, p. 108.
  11. ^ Wanner 2010, p. 86.
  12. ^ Wanner 2010, p. 109.
  13. ^ Jump up to: a b c Wanner 2010, p. 110.
  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Oltean 2007, p. 55.
  15. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 170.
  16. ^ CIL, III,14465.
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b MacKendrick 2000, p. 127.
  18. ^ Köpeczi 2001, p. 68.
  19. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 58.
  20. ^ Lukács 2005, p. 16.
  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Petolescu 2014, p. 173.
  22. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Petolescu 2014, p. 177.
  23. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Petolescu 2014, p. 174.
  24. ^ CIL, III,963=7726.
  25. ^ Wanner 2010, p. 280.
  26. ^ Wanner 2010, p. 278.
  27. ^ Köpeczi 2001, p. 89.
  28. ^ MacKendrick 2000, p. 135.
  29. ^ MacKendrick 2000, p. 112.
  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Petolescu 2014, p. 175.
  31. ^ Fodorean 2006, p. 70.
  32. ^ Southern & Dixon 1996, p. 11.
  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pop & Bolovan 2009, p. 550.
  34. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Treptow 1996, p. 34.
  35. ^ Jump up to: a b c Pop & Bolovan 2009, p. 78.
  36. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 205.
  37. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 209.
  38. ^ Köpeczi 2001, p. 119.
  39. ^ Watson 2004, p. 156.
  40. ^ Wolfram & Dunlap 1990, p. 57.
  41. ^ Jump up to: a b Wolfram & Dunlap 1990, p. 58.
  42. ^ Wolfram & Dunlap 1990, p. 59.
  43. ^ Jump up to: a b Burns 1991, pp. 110–111.
  44. ^ Wolfram & Dunlap 1990, p. 56.
  45. ^ Wolfram & Dunlap 1990, pp. 56-59.
  46. ^ Pop & Bolovan 2009, p. 82.
  47. ^ Wanner 2010, pp. 27-28.
  48. ^ Thompson 1999, p. 28.
  49. ^ Bóna 1994, p. 75.
  50. ^ Bărbulescu 2005, pp. 190-191.
  51. ^ Jump up to: a b Bóna 1994, p. 77.
  52. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Todd 2009, p. 223.
  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Gündisch 1998, p. 23.
  54. ^ Todd 2003, p. 223.
  55. ^ Heather 2012, p. 223.
  56. ^ Bóna 1994, p. 80.
  57. ^ Bărbulescu 2005, p. 191.
  58. ^ Jump up to: a b Bóna 1994, pp. 86, 89.
  59. ^ Lukács 2005, p. 20.
  60. ^ Curta 2005, pp. 87, 205.
  61. ^ Curta 2001, pp. 195, 201.
  62. ^ Curta 2006, p. 63.
  63. ^ Curta 2006, p. 62.
  64. ^ Todd 2003, p. 221.
  65. ^ Jump up to: a b c d AvarDateline 2012.
  66. ^ Jump up to: a b Anonymus c. 1200, ch.24.
  67. ^ Jump up to: a b Bak 2010, p. 59.
  68. ^ Anonymus c. 1200, ch.26.
  69. ^ Bak 2010, p. 63.
  70. ^ Sălăgean 2006, p. 141.
  71. ^ Pop 1996, p. 146.
  72. ^ Anonymus c. 1200, ch.27.
  73. ^ Bak 2010, p. 65.
  74. ^ Jump up to: a b c Lukács 2005, p. 30.
  75. ^ Lukács 2005, pp. 25-26.
  76. ^ Macartney 2008, p. 118.
  77. ^ Pop 1996, p. 142.
  78. ^ Jump up to: a b Lukács 2005, p. 29.
  79. ^ Köpeczi 2001, p. 310.
  80. ^ Lukács 2005, p. 28.
  81. ^ Jump up to: a b Köpeczi 2001, p. 311.
  82. ^ Bóna 1994, p. 163.
  83. ^ Benkő 1994, p. 364.
  84. ^ Keul 2009, p. 27.
  85. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lukács 2005, p. 58.
  86. ^ Markó 2006, p. 416.
  87. ^ Curta 2006, p. 355.
  88. ^ Lazarovici 1997, p. 32.
  89. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Britannica 1910, p. 891.
  90. ^ clujnet 2004.
  91. ^ Jump up to: a b Lukács 2005, p. 33.
  92. ^ Jump up to: a b c d szabadsag 2003.
  93. ^ Jump up to: a b Lazarovici 1997, p. 204.
  94. ^ Jump up to: a b ghidvideoturistic 2013.
  95. ^ Lazarovici 1997, p. 38.
  96. ^ BeitHatfutsot 2013.
  97. ^ Lukács 2005, p. 49.
  98. ^ Csontosi 1882, p. 135.
  99. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 90.
  100. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Levack 2013, p. II.
  101. ^ HandbuchÖsterreich 1856, p. 59.
  102. ^ Csontosi 1882, p. 138.
  103. ^ Davidson 2014, p. 401.
  104. ^ Flóra 2012.
  105. ^ Jump up to: a b Ripley 1879.
  106. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 92.
  107. ^ Magocsi 2002.
  108. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Brubaker 2006, p. 93.
  109. ^ Chambers 1901.
  110. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 134.
  111. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 97.
  112. ^ Jump up to: a b c Seltzer 1952, p. 421.
  113. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 100.
  114. ^ OsloCatholicDiocese 2007.
  115. ^ Brubaker 2006, p. 142.
  116. ^ YIVO 2010.
  117. ^ Jump up to: a b c Brubaker 2006, p. 105.
  118. ^ UN 1976.
  119. ^ Carey 2004, p. 264.
  120. ^ ETHZ 2018.

Sources[]

Primary sources[]

  • Anonymus, Notary of King Béla (c. 1200). Gesta Hungarorum [The Deeds of the Hungarians] (in Latin).

Secondary sources[]

Tertiary sources[]

  • "Avar Dateline". Turkic World/History. turkicworld.org: Turkic World/History. 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  • Bărbulescu, Mihai (2005). Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Nägler, Thomas (eds.). The History of Transylvania: (Until 1541). Cluj-Napoca: Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Studies. ISBN 978-973-7784-04-9. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  • Benkő, Elek (1994). "Kolozsmonostor". In Kristó, Gyula; Engel, Pál; Makk, Ferenc (eds.). Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th centuries)] (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 363–364. ISBN 978-963-056-722-0. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
  • Davidson, Alan (2014). "Hungary". In Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford Companions (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-104072-6. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  • "Demographic Yearbook 1975" (27th ed.). New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistical Office. 1976: 253–279. OCLC 5157865. Retrieved 10 September 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • "Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Kaiserthumes Österreich" [Court and State Handbook of the Austrian Empire]. Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Kaiserthumes Österreich (in German). 1856 (5). Vienna: Kaiserlich-königlichen Hof- und Staatsdruckerei. 1856. OCLC 894955555. Retrieved 9 September 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links[]

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by with reliable sources.
Retrieved from ""