Wild edible plants of Israel / Palestine

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Capparis spinosa
Asparagus aphyllus
Arum palaestinum
Lactuca serriola

Wild edible plants in the geographical region known as Israel / Palestine, like in other countries, have been used to sustain life in periods of dearth and famine,[1] or else simply used as a supplementary food source[2] for additional nourishment and pleasure.[3] The diverse flora of Israel / Palestine offers a wide-range of plants suitable for human consumption, many of which have a long history of usage in the daily cuisines of its native peoples.

In the State of Israel, there is a law (33A) that provides for the preservation of protected natural objects of value. The law includes a list of protected sites and wild plants (flora) and animals (fauna). The law encourages the regulation of the conservation of wild plants in general, and prohibits picking, trading or causing any other damage to protected wild plants.

The local population has, traditionally and in various times of its settlement, made use of these plants, which they gathered for human consumption, whether to be eaten fresh or by steeping them in hot water, or by cooking, or by making use of them as a spice or condiment. All plants herein named are without regulation and can be utilised by the public, unless otherwise noted as protected under Israeli law.

History of foraging[]

According to Jewish tradition, the history of foraging dates back to the first man, Adam, whom after God had cursed and caused two species of thistle, qōṣ and dardar in Genesis 3:18, to spring-up from the ground, the same plants were given to him as food - had at leisure, along with his bread procured by his own sweat.[4] The idea being that eating the wild plants is more convenient than preparing bread with all the work that precedes it. According to German orientalist, Gustaf Dalman, who researched the cultivated and wild edible plants grown in Palestine, "[as] for all plants, the young growths of spring are used; for the thistles usually only the core and the stem. Otherwise, the principle 'every herb can be eaten' (kull ʻeshb bittākal) is valid."[5] Archaeological finds attest to the fact that, in almost every society and culture, hunting and gathering have occupied a principal place in human history.[6]

When foraging for edible plants and fungi, effort should be taken to recognize poisonous plants and fungi, so as not to mistake them for those plants which are eaten, or else know what to avoid while eating them. Certain edible plants may have parts that are unfit for human consumption.

Herbs, grasses, fungi and shrubs[]

Species Common name Observations
Aizoon canariense Canarian aizoon (Arabic: shaḥm el-arḍ; ḥādāq; ḥudāk; samḥ) The Canarian aizoon is a desert plant mentioned in an 11th-century Mishnah commentary under the name shaḥm el-arḍ.[7] In Egypt, the plant was known by other names. The Bedouins of the Eastern Desert in Egypt would collect the seeds of this woody annual and grind them to be cooked into a gruel.[8] In Israel / Palestine, the plant grows in the Judean desert westward of the Dead Sea, as also along the southeastern portions of the Negev, as far as the Great Rift Valley.[9]
Allium ampeloprasum Wild leek (Arabic: thūm; karāt berri; basal el-afriṭ; kurāth) Leaves are eaten as a fresh salad herb.[10][11] The wild leek today is protected under Israeli law.[12]
Allium neapolitanum Naples garlic (Arabic: thūm) This herb is commonly seen throughout the country in early Spring, and is easily recognised by its six-petaled white flowers, arranged in a cylindrical inflorescence, and having a triangular-like stem (bearing three angles). The fresh stems and roots are edible and can be eaten as a salad. A similar garlic is A. trifoliatum (Hirsute garlic), also very common in the country.[13]
Amaranthus blitum Blite; Wild amaranth; Goosefoot (Arabic: yarbūz; jarbūz; tūbāq; zereejeh) An annual summer weed with broad, shiny leaves. Leaves can be cooked and eaten in times of dearth. The plant is thought by many to be the plant mentioned in the Mishnah (Shevi'it 9:1), compiled in 189 CE, under the late Hebrew name yarbūzīn hashōtīn (wild amaranths).[14][15] Another common amaranth in the country is Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot amaranth; pigweed).[16][17]
Anchusa strigosa Strigose buglose (Arabic: lisān eth-thawr; ḥemḥam) Young leaf growths of spring are collected and then boiled. After boiling, the leaves are finely chopped and sautéed in oil and garlic, and used as a meat garnish or as a viand with eggs. The same applies to A. undulata, A. azurea, A. aegyptiaca, A. ovata, A. milleri, and Hormuzakia aggregata, which are all endemic to the country.[18]
Apium graveolens Wild celery; parsley (Arabic: kerafs) Although found in the wild, today the plant is largely cultivated. Found growing along water courses in the Hula Plain and low-lying regions of the Sea of Galilee, among other places. In the wild, the stalks when grown are too hardened to be eaten, wherefore their fern-like leaves which grow as umbels are selected. The leaves are a staple in many soups, and occasionally baked with cheeses.[19] Eaten raw as a salad with pickles; also cut small in cooked foods.[20] Another specie that grows profusely in the Acco Plain and in the Golan Heights is A. nodiflorum.[21][22]
Artemisia Judaica Judean wormwood (Arabic: baʻthrān; buʻaythrān; shīḥ) A tea is made from the dried leaves of this desert shrub, and is thought to have medicinal properties.[23] The same use is had with Artemisia herba-alba (white wormwood),[24][25] and known locally by the name shīḥ.[26]
Arum palaestinum Arum (Arabic: lūf) Leaves and tubers are edible after they have been leached of their toxins.[18][27][28][29] The plant is mentioned in the Mishnah, where its cultivation and use as food was described.[30][31] Theophrastus also mentions the plant in his Enquiry into Plants, describing the necessity of leaching the roots and leaves before they can be eaten.[32] Typically, the cooked leaves and roots are eaten with rice. Ḳrispil names other genera of plants having the same properties as arum, viz., Arisarum vulgare[33] and Eminium spiculatum,[34] while Dalman adds another specie, Arum dioscoridis (Spotted arum).[35]
Asparagus aphyllus Prickly asparagus (Arabic: ḥalēyūn) The young shoots of the plant are cut down, cooked in boiling water, flavored with lemon juice and salt and eaten.[36][37] In some places, the custom is to roast them in hot-ashes over the ṭābūn baking oven.[38][39]
Astoma seselifolium Common astoma (Arabic: balbeson; balbelūs) Stems and leaves eaten fresh as a garden vegetable. The plant's bulbous roots are also edible and are made palatable by roasting them over a fire. A salad was made by adding to a bowl a layer of spring onions, followed by a layer of the bulbous root of astoma, a dash of salt, water and zaʻtar (oregano).[40][41] The roots have a sweet taste and are fragranced in the months April, May and June.
Atriplex halimus Shrubby saltbush; orache (Arabic: qaṭaf; gaṭaf) The tender leaves of this shrub are edible and can be eaten either fresh in a salad or boiled,[42] but also can be fried with eggs,[43] or simply fried with a dash of olive oil, water and chopped bulb onions.[44] The Bedouins would frequently eat the leaves after boiling and mixing them with sour goats' milk,[45] or yogurt. The shrub is common all along the Jordan River valley, and which genus includes many other species. For ancient Jewish references on this plant, see Use in Antiquity.
Beta vulgaris Chard; White beet (Arabic: silq; siliq berri) A leafy vegetable whose young leaves can be added raw to salads, whilst the mature leaves are most commonly served boiled or steamed, in which case they have a taste and texture similar to spinach.[46] The leaves are traditionally consumed in cooked food, but also as stuffed foods (with filling).[47]
Brassica tournefortii Tournefort's mustard (Arabic: sufayr; shirtim) Seeds and tender leaves of plant can be used as a spice in salads. Grows primarily in sandy soils along the coastal plains.[48]
Capparis spinosa Caper-bush (Arabic: qabbār, el-aṣaf laṣaf) Caper flower buds (before they begin to blossom) and fruits (cucumber-like berries) are pickled and eaten. Caper leaves are part of the Greek cuisine[49] In Israel / Palestine, caper buds and berries were often pickled in a brine of salt water and spices, while the caper leaves were used as a spice.[42] The tender green branches and leaves can also be pickled and eaten.[50]
Capsella bursa-pastoris Shepherd's purse (Arabic: snēnwe; kīs el-raʻī; kharfaq; snūnje) Tender leaves primarily used as a spice to flavor salads, but can also be eaten raw or steamed.[51][52] An infusion made from its leaves is also used medicinally among the Bedouins of the Negev, especially as a cure in stomach-ache.[53] Older leaves and seed capsules develop a peppery taste and are used as a food flavoring.[53][52]
Carrichtera annua Annual carrichtera (Arabic: galēgleh; iglayglih) A branched herb endemic to the Negev and Judean desert whose leaves and stems are edible.[10] Although edible, the plant is covered with small, white erectile hairs, making it unpleasant to the touch.
Chiliadenus iphionoides (Varthemia iphionoides) Goldy-locks (Arabic: kenēdeh; shtēleh; slīmānī) A low-lying shrub common all throughout the country and growing on rocky ground.[54] Its sweet-smelling, pungent leaves are added as a spice to flavor cooking meat and soup.[55] A tea concoction can also be made from the leaves by steeping them in hot water (without boiling).[54]
Cichorium endivia (C. pumilum) Dwarf chicory (Arabic: ʻilt; ʻilk; ʻilsh; hindeba; sikōria) Young tender leaves chopped and fried with onions and garlic, and a pinch of salt. Cooked with lentils. Eaten fresh as a salad with beets and lemon juice.[56][57] C. endivia (syn. C. pumilum) is the only chicory native to the country,[58] and is numbered among the bitter herbs that can be eaten by Israel during the Passover ritual.[59] The larger the leaves grow, the bitterer they become. Best when picked in the early Spring before the plant blossoms. The Arab population of Galilee have traditionally used it in stuffed foods. Roasted chicory roots have been used as a substitute for coffee.[60]
Cistanche tubulosa Desert broomrape (Arabic: dhunūn; halūq; zib el-ʻabīd) A parasytic desert plant whose roots are eaten by the Bedouins of the Negev and Sinai. After washing, the roots were laid upon live coals in an open fire pit to be roasted.[61][10]
Corchorus olitorius; C. trilocularis Jew's Mallow (Arabic: melūkhīye) Leaves chopped and cooked in a skillet, with a little water, a dash of olive oil, salt, black pepper, chopped garlic, parsley and bulb onions.[62][63] C. trilocularis is already an endangered species in Israel.[64]
Coriandrum sativum Wild coriander (Arabic: kūsbara) An herb found mostly in the mountainous regions the country, whose tender green leaves are used as a spice in other foods and vegetables.[65][66] The plant is mentioned in the Mishnah (Shevi'it 9:1) as being one of several herbs and plants that usually grow of their own in the wild, although they are utilised as food.[67]
Crocus hyemalis Winter crocus; saffron (Arabic: shuḥēm; zaʻfarān; bizzēz; baṭāṭ el-faqīr; sirāj el-ghūle) One of the first flowers to bloom after the first winter rains (usually blooming in December and January), and easily recognized by their white petals.[68] Although protected by law,[69] the bulbs of the flower were dug-up and collected to be eaten by the poor after cooking or roasting, whence it derives its Arabic name baṭāṭ el-faqīr ("poor man's potato").[70][42] The stamens of the flowers were, formerly, collected at a time when there was no dew and later dried in special drying ovens for about a quarter-of-an-hour while laid over sieves made of goats' hair, or else over hot coals, and then taken-up and spread out to cool for about half an hour. After which, they are stored in sealed jars to be used as a food coloring and as a spice.
Cynomorium coccineum Scarlet broom-rape (Arabic: masrūr; ṭōrṭūṭ; zīb al-arḍ) Growing in the Negev and in the Sinai Peninsula, this unique parasitic plant feeds on the roots of other host plants, and was occasionally eaten on long journeys by Bedouins, who would clean and peel the fresh spikes and eat the crisp white interior, which is said to be succulent and sweet, with a flavour of apples and a pleasantly astringent effect.[1] Dalman mentions a specie of broom rape (Philipaea lutea) whose roots were grated and used to sweeten milk.[71] The desert plant here mentioned is protected under Israeli law.[72]
Daucus carota Wild carrot (Arabic: jāzer; bēlisān) A sub-specie of the cultivated carrot, the yellow-white roots of which plant were sometimes collected, boiled and eaten by the peasantry of the country.[73][74]
Diplotaxis erucoides White wall-rocket (Arabic: ḥwērre; saʻesʻa; ḥarra) Leaves, flowers and pods are all eaten as a salad herb, or used as a spice [75][76] For salads, only the young and tender stems and leaves are selected.[77] According to Krispil, the tender leaves of this plant were soaked in 1 liter of milk for one day, the milk then put through a sieve and drunk on an empty stomach.[78] Other species that grown in the Negev are the Coarse rocket (Diplotaxis harra), whose flowers are eaten, and the Desert rocket (Diplotaxis acris), known by the Arabic name yahag, whose flowers and leaves are eaten.[10]
Emex spinosa Spiny dock; Devil's thorn (Arabic: irkēbeh; irkaybah; rukbah; ḥabidhān) A prostate annual with broad, semi-fleshy leaves and containing a taproot resembling a carrot, but shorter and white in color. Tender roots are edible, collected in winter and eaten by Bedouins, either raw or after roasting.[79][10]
Enarthrocarpus strangulatus Resort necklace (Arabic: shilwē; shilwih) A branched annual herb whose low-growing stems and leaves are boiled, strained, and put on bread.[10][55] The herb is common to the Negev.[80]
Erodium crassifolium (E. hirtum) Desert stork's-bill (Arabic: tumēr; ibret el-raʻī) A perennial desert geophyte common to the Negev of the country and in the Judean desert. Leaves are edible, but especially the fresh, underground white bulb (corm) of the plant (from recent year's growth, rather than the previous year's growth which is reddish in color). The corm of the stork's-bill is not symmetrical and round, but horny and crooked; best when sautéed in olive oil, with chopped onions, garlic, black-pepper and other spices. Water in which flowers of the plant have been steeped is used to soften the skin.[81]
Erucaria microcarpa (Reboudia pinnata) Pink-mustard (Arabic: slēḥ; slīḥ ʻādī) Stem, flowers and leaves are eaten raw.[10] Best when prepared with tomatoes and lemon juice.[82] Other species of pink-mustard native to the country are the Sand pink-mustard (Erucaria rostrata), common to the Negev and Judean desert where it is known as slīḥ ḥadharī, and the Spanish pink-mustard (Erucaria hispanica).[83]
Eruca sativa Garden rocket; arugula (Arabic: ḥardan; gergīr; jerjīr) This wild annual herb is common throughout the country, but can be found more profusely growing along the Jordan River Valley.[84] The herb is eaten fresh and in salads, or with bread-rolls and cheese.[85] Gergīr recalls the biblical story in 2 Kings 4:39, where a certain famished man went into the field to pick oroth [herbs], and which Hebrew word is explained by Rabbi Johanan as meaning gergīr.[86][87] In the Arabic dialect spoken in Palestine in Dalman's time, both, Eruca sativa (rocket) and Nasturtium officinale (watercress) were called gergīr.[84]
Eryngium creticum Field eryngo (Arabic: kurṣeʻanne) Although a thorny plant when fully grown, it produces terminal clusters of tender leaves that are edible when young, though somewhat bitter.[88] Tender leaves eaten as salad, having the taste of parsley. The root is also palatable.[89][90] There are two different stages of development: the young stage in which the leaves are green and large and edible, and the mature stage in which the plant becomes thorny without any resemblance to its first appearance.
Foeniculum vulgare Fennel (Arabic: shūmmar; shōmar) Stems and tender leaves of the common fennel are used principally as a spice to flavor cooked dishes, as well as an additive in preserved foodstuffs and in alcoholic beverages.[91][92][93] A tea can also be produced from the seeds of fennel.[94]
Frankenia revoluta Sea-heath (Arabic: qermel; milīḥī) Leaves are used as a condiment for flavoring clarified butter.[55] Another species of sea-heath endemic to the country is Powdery sea-heath (Frankenia pulverulenta).
Glycyrrhiza echinata Prickly licorice (Arabic: ʻarq es-sūs; sūs) A perennial from whose dried and crushed root is produced the licorice spice, used in flavoring liquors and other drinks.[95] A refreshing soft-drink called in Arabic sūs was made from its root, with sugar and lemon.[95][71] In Israel / Palestine, the plant is common in the Sharon plain, the Hula Valley, the areas around Beit Shean and the Sea of Galilee. The only other wild licorice plant in the country is G. glabra (common liquorice), bearing non-thorny fruit and growing along the Jordan River Valley and the eastern banks of the Sea of Galilee.[96] Of the two species, only G. glabra is protected under Israeli law.
Gundelia tournefortii Tumble thistle (Arabic: ʻakkūb; kaʻūb) Early in the year, Gundelia plants growing in the wild are cut at the base and the thorns are removed.[97] Leaves, stems, roots, and particularly the undeveloped flowerheads can be eaten.[98] The base of the young leaves which is still under the surface is used by Bedouin and Arabs to make akkub soup. In the West Bank, young flowerheads, stems and leaves are fried in olive oil, mixed with a stew of meat chops until well done, and served mixed with yogurt. Gundelia is said to taste like something between asparagus and artichoke.[99][100] The earliest known mentions of this plant are in the Midrash Rabba (Genesis Rabba, s.v. קוץ ודרדר יצמח לך‎), and Babylonian Talmud (Betza 34a). Today, the Tumble thistle is protected under Israeli law.[98]
Hordeum spontaneum Wild barley (Arabic: shaʻir eḥṣeinī; zraʻ sāneh) A wild grain that grows profusely throughout all the country, and reaching mature growth in late Spring (around May).[101] When fully dry, the seed kernels with their awns fall from the spikes when only slightly disturbed. Best to reap the stalks of wild barley when they are still green and intact. Wild barley is often seen growing where wild mustard grows. [Note: Before the invention of machines, the husks were removed from the kernels of barley in the following manner: The harvested barley with their husks were soaked in water for a short while, afterwards spread out over a flat area for the time it takes for them to only semi-dry. They were then taken up, the damp kernels with their husks, and put within a large skillet where they were only half-roasted (turning constantly). At this stage, they were taken out and placed within a large earthenware vessel sunken partly into the ground (allowing for the vessel to be firmly fixed and not break on account of the work), where people with clean feet would stomp upon the barley and press upon it with their bare feet, until the husks fell off from the barley kernels. The kernels were then sifted from their husks and could then be either completely roasted, or ground into flour.][102] In some places, barley is ground and roasted with oil or sheep fat.[103]
Lactuca serriola Broom lettuce (Arabic: khass berri; khass el-ḥimār) The most common of the wild lettuce that grows in the country, beginning in winter and early Spring. The tender leaves can be eaten fresh or cooked in hot dishes.[104] The plant is listed among the bitter herbs that can be eaten on the night of Passover.[104]
Lamium amplexicaule Common henbit (Arabic: fūm es-sammaqah) The herb's young leaves, shoots, and flowers can be eaten, either raw or cooked.[105][106] The shoots and stems are said to have a slightly sweet and peppery flavor.
Lathyrus blepharicarpus Ciliate vetchling (Arabic: jilbān) Peas are edible and eaten either raw or cooked. The same applies to the other species of vetchling (Lathyrus spp.) growing in Israel / Palestine.[42][107] The L. blepharicarpus specie is prevalent all throughout the mountainous districts of the country. The specie that grows along the coastal plains is L. marmoratus, while the principal vetchling that grows in Upper Galilee is L. sessilifolius. Some 15 species of Lathyrus have been named in the country.[108]
Launaea nudicaulis Bold-leaf launaea (Arabic: el-ḥuwwaia; ḥuwwī) A desert annual growing close to the ground, with leaves concentrated at the base of the plant. The leaves are collected and eaten.[109][10] The plant is commonly found in the Negev and in the Judean Desert.
Lepidium latifolium Wild cress; pepperweed (Arabic: rashād berri; ḥarafraf; qisṭ) A tall perennial herb that grows alongside natural springs and salt flats in the coastal plains and in the northern valleys, especially the Hula Plain. Its leaves are boiled and eaten, but which some will practice leaching before its final cooking to remove its pungent and sharp taste. Other species that grow in Israel / Palestine include L. spinosum (Prickly pepperwort) and L. spinescens, the former of which grows in packed soil in the Golan Heights, and in places in Upper and Lower Galilee.[110][111][112]
Lotus edulis lotus (Arabic: lotūs; jelathōn) This herb is now mostly rare in Israel / Palestine, except in Mount Carmel and the Carmel coast. It bears a large seed pod, containing tasty, round edible seeds.[113] Dalman also spoke of a similar plant, whose green seed pods are edible, namely, L. palaestinus, now apparently bearing the taxonomic name of Tetragonolobus purpureus (Purple-winged pea).[42] The seeds are eaten raw.
Lupinus pilosus Blue lupine (Arabic: tūrmūs) The seeds are edible after they are first leached by boiling them in hot water, a process that is repeated several times, with the water being discarded after each boil.[114] Blue lupine grows in the mountainous regions of Israel / Palestine, and is a plant protected by Israeli law because of its exquisite beauty.[115] Other species endemic to Israel / Palestine include L. palaestinus (Palestine lupine) and which is not protected by law, and L. luteus (Yellow lupine), and L. angustifolius (Narrow-leaved lupine). The three species grow in the Sharon Plain, with the last specie also found in the Golan Heights.[116]
Malva nicaeensis; M. sylvestris Common mallow (Arabic: khubēzza; khuṭmi) Leaves chopped and cooked in a skillet, with a little water, a dash of olive oil, salt, chopped garlic and onions. The same applies to all the Malva spp. growing in the country. This herb makes for a delectable garnish used in food stuffing,[117] since they are not bitter at all. Dalman writes in his description of the plant that, "in Palestine, the leaves [are] cut up and cooked with cooking butter and water, [and] seasoned with lemon or pepper."[18][118] Others prepare the cooked mallows with lentils or tomatoes.[55] Among the mallows native to the country is Lavatera cretica (Cretan mallow).[119][120] Excellent with scrambled eggs.
Matricaria aurea Golden chamomile (Arabic: babūnij) Grows primarily in the Judean mountains and in the Judean desert, but can be seen in other parts of the country, as far as Galilee, and is used as an herbal infusion for teas. Today, the Golden chamomile is protected by Israeli law.[121] Another specie is M. recutita (Blue chamomile) which grows primarily in the Upper Galilee and in the Hula alluvial plain.
Matthiola livida Desert stock (Arabic: mantūr; shugayrih; fajīlī) This genus of the mustard family is marked by several species in the country, among which being M. aspera, M. arabica (known in Arabic by the name ḥumḥum), and M. tricuspidata. The flowers and stems are edible.[10]
Medicago laciniata Cut-leaf medick (Arabic: ḥandagūg ḥadharī; ʻarebiyān; khubaz el-raʻī) A beverage (tea) can be made from the plant's stems and leaves when boiled in water, with sugar added.[55] The plant grows widely throughout the Negev. Other species of Medicago, such as M. orbicularis, can also be used for preparing tea.[122]
Mentha longifolia (Mentha sylvestris) Horse mint (Arabic: naʻnaʻ; ḥabaq; naʻnaʻt el-qana) A wild mint found along the watercourses throughout the country, usually growing in clusters. Both dried and fresh leaves used in preparing a tea.[123][42] Horse mint is also known for its medicinal properties.[124]
Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum Egyptian fig-marigold; iceplant (Arabic: shnīn; samḥ; semeḥ) A desert plant found in the Negev and the Judean desert. The plant produces many small black seeds which are released after the first rainfall.[125] The Bedouins would traditionally collect the small black seeds of this plant, dry them and grind them, and then knead the resultant flour with water and bake the dough into bread. To this would be added a dash of sesame seeds and salt.[126] After stripping off the seed capsules, the Bedouins would hasten the release of the seeds by immersing the capsules in water where they are stirred until they open and the seeds fall to the bottom.[127] The flour, kneaded with dates and clarified butter is eaten raw.[128]
Micromeria fruticosa Thyme-leaved savory (Arabic: qūrnīye; ʻisbat a-shai; zuʻtemān) Growing mainly on chalkstone and caliche rocks, a decoction made from the leaves of this aromatic plant is a favorite amongst tea drinkers. The leaves can either be fresh or dried. The chopped leaves are also used as a spice in salty foods.[129] In the Hebron area, the people had a practice to spread the stems and leaves of Thyme-leaved savory over the stone platform used by them to dry out figs, so as to impart the plant's fragrance to the dried figs.[129] Although disputed, some scholars think this plant to be the koranit of the Mishnah.[130]
Moricandia nitens Shining moricandia (Arabic: ḥamēmeh; aḥmīm) A semi-shrub that grows in the Negev at the foot of limestone cliffs and in the ravines of the watercourses.[131] Its young leaves and flowering buds are harvested and eaten.[10]
Muscari commutatum Grape hyacinth (Arabic: bulbūs) The plant's bulbous roots are eaten fresh as a garden herb. In the Levant they are known as "bulbus." The other three species endemic to Israel / Palestine are M. neglectum, M. parviflorum, and M. inconstrictum. A similar bulbous plant is Leopoldia comosa.
Nasturtium officinale True water-cress (Arabic: qūrāt el-ʻaīn; rashād; jerjīr; qarra) Where there is an abundance of water, this plant is plenteous, especially along natural springs and small rivulets. The leaves of the water-cress are edible and have the taste and smell of a pungent-smelling radish.[132][133]
Notobasis syriaca Syrian thistle (Arabic: khūrfēsh; khūrfesh el-ḥamīr) The core and stems of this thistle are mostly eaten raw,[134] but the leafstalks can also be eaten, either fresh in a salad or cooked, after removing the thorns.[135][136][137] The plant is widely spread throughout the country, and is at its zenith of blossoming in April.
Onobrychis crista-galli Cock's comb; Sainfoin (Arabic: dhūrēs; dhurays) The seedpods of this plant are edible. A similar plant whose seedpods are eaten is the Crested sainfoin (Onobrychis squarrosa).[10] A related species whose seed resembles an irregular, flat disc is the Ptolemaic sainfoin (Onobrychis ptolemaica), native to the eastern Negev.[138]
Orchis spp. Orchid (Arabic: saḥlab; qarn el-ghazāl) The salep hot drink was traditionally made by extracting its flavor from the dried corms (tubers) of this plant. The salep powder was then added to milk before it reached boiling temperature, stirred constantly, unto which cornstarch was added as a thickening agent, along with sugar and eggs. The hot drink is often flavored, after cooling, with ground cinnamon, raisins, shredded coconut and an orange extract. All of the wild orchids in the country, today, are protected under Israeli law,[139] although commercially produced salep (stores of a pre-packaged kind) can still be had.
Origanum syriacum (Majorana syriaca) Oregano; Wild marjoram (Arabic: zaʻtar) Perhaps the most celebrated herb in Israel / Palestine, insofar that foraging parties were often sent out to collect the herb, before it was protected under Israeli law. The herbal stalks with their leaves are dried, after which the leaves are broken off and crushed and used as a spice in many cuisines, but mostly eaten as a spice on breads with crushed garlic, chopped cayenne peppers, and a dash of olive-oil. It is added to the chickpea pastes (hummus), as well as other garnishes and pastes.[140][141][142] In some places, the fresh leaves are added as a spice in tea.
Orobanche cernua Nodding broomrape (Arabic: jaʻafīl; ḥalūq; tarthūth) The root of this plant is roasted and eaten.[10] Other native species include the Scalloped broomrape (Orobanche crenata) and Mutel's broomrape (Orobanche mutelii).
Oxalis pes-caprae Nodding wood-sorrel (Arabic: ḥamāḍ; ḥummēseh) An edible herb whose green stems are often chewed by children for their mildly sour, lemon-like taste.[143] The nodding wood sorrel, although now widespread in the country, is thought to be an invasive specie.[144] The plant can be used to neutralise the toxins in arum when cooked together with arum.[28]
Piptatherum holciforme Hairy ricegrass (Arabic: el-jāwars; dukhn; sanām) A type of wild millet. Seeds are ground into meal to be cooked with either curdled milk or regular goat's milk and made into a farinaceous dish. The porridge is sweetened according to taste. A similar species in the country is Piptatherum blancheanum (Hebrew: נשרן מכחיל), growing at the edge of tree groves in the Mediterranean region.[145]
Pisum sativum (P. fulvum) Wild pea (Arabic: burrēde; bāzella alya; bāzēlia) Peas in pods eaten raw while still green or either cooked after ripening. Other species of wild pea in Israel include P. elatius (Tall wild pea).[146] and P. fulvum (Yellow wild pea)[147]
Pituranthos tortuosus (Deverra tortuosa) Desert dill (Arabic: zagūḥ) An umbellifer having a strong scent of celery when leaves and stems are crushed between one's fingers. The essential oils of the leaves of this desert plant are used as a condiment in tea.[148] The leaves and stems can also be used to flavor soups.
Portulaca oleracea Garden purslane (Arabic: farfaḥina; farfaḥin baqlī; baqlah; rijlah; baqlat el-ḥamqaʻ) A common herb that grows in well-irrigated fields and gardens, having succulent leaves. The plant is mentioned in the Mishnah (Shevi'it 9:1) as being one of several herbs and plants that usually grow of their own in the wild, although they are utilised as food.[149] Among Arab fellahin, the leaves are prepared as a salad by chopping them small with either green onions or bulb onions, tomato paste, garlic, parsley, salt and other spices according to taste. Others add olive oil and vinegar.[150] Another specie of purslane that grows in the country is P. grandiflora and which is said to be more bitter.[151]
Prasium majus Great hedge-nettle (Arabic: shāwfāl) Both flowers and leaves are cooked to be eaten.[152]
Pulicaria incisa (Pulicaria desertorum) Undulate fleabane (Arabic: rabil) A tea is made from an infusion of the plant's leaves.[153] The same tea concoction can be made from the leaves of Pulicaria undulata, also native to Israel / Palestine, but care should be taken not to make the brew too strong, or else its taste will be like drinking warm turpentine.[23]
Raphanus raphanistrum Wild radish (Arabic: fijl) This species of wild radish is mostly seen growing along the Sharon Plain along the coastal regions. The green, elongated pods protruding from the stems are collected, chopped and eaten as a salad.[154] The leaves are best when they are picked young, as they are only slightly pungent, whereas older leaves are bitter.[155] Other species in Israel / Palestine include R. rostrum (Dagger radish), growing in the central mountainous districts and in Galilee, and R. aucheri (Dangling radish).[156]
Rheum palaestinum Desert rhubarb (Arabic: kahamūn) A very rare plant found in the southern Negev and which is now an endangered species and protected under Israeli law. The Bedouins formerly made use of the root as a condiment for clarified butter.[55] The flowers of the desert rhubarb are also edible.[10]
Rosa canina Dog rose (Arabic: ward) The dog rose is a rare species in the wild, and is now only native to the northern regions of Israel / Palestine, and the Golan Heights, as well as to the historic mountainous regions of Samaria and Judea, growing in oak forests and among rocks. The shrub produces rosehips which is the principal part of the plant in food, and has been used, along with its flower petals, to make flavored hot drinks (teas), preserves, jellies and pickled relishes. From the thick, sweet peel a jam (confitures) is made.[157] The ripe fruits are very sweet and can be eaten as they are. Before eating it is recommended to remove the stiff hairs around the seeds.[157] For rose hip tea, simply put 1-2 teaspoons of dried rose hips in a tea pot, let it sit for 15-20 minutes, then strain into a cup. Similar species also native to the country are Rosa phoenicia (Phoenician rose)[158] and R. pulverulenta (Pine-scented rose) found on Mount Hermon. The shrub and its use as food in antiquity is mentioned in Mishnah (Sheviit 7:6–7).[158] Today, R. canina and R. pulverulenta are protected under Israeli law.[159]
Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary (Arabic: ḥasa el-bān; iklīl ej-jebal) Shrub-like tree with highly fragranced leaves, once endemic to nearly all places in Israel / Palestine, but whose natural growth is now nearly extinct, except along the sea coasts.[160][161] The leaves were traditionally used by Arab peasants in the country to season soups.
Rubus sanctus Holy bramble (Arabic: ʻaleq; ʻuleq; ṭūṭ) This bush produces the sweet and edible blackberry which can be eaten fresh, or collected in large quantities to be made into fruit compotes and confitures. The bush grows along watercourses all throughout the country, but especially in Lower Galilee and in the Golan Heights.[162]
Rumex pulcher Fiddle dock (Arabic: ḥummēḍ; ḥummēdah; lisān el-kalb) The sour leaves are eaten raw as a salad, or in a soup; roots boiled.[38] A similar edible herb native to the country, in the Negev and in the Judean desert, is Rumex cyprius (Pink sorrel), used by natives to prepare salads and a refreshing sour drink.[163][164] The Bedouins of the Negev who give to this plant the name ḥamāṣīṣ would boil its leaves, strain it and mix the residue with sour goat's milk.[55]
Salvia fruticosa Three-lobed sage (Arabic: mēramīye) Among the sages that are endemic to Israel / Palestine, the Three-lobed sage, known as mēramīye, is the most prized. Its scent is sweet and pleasant and makes for an excellent infusion in tea, but can also be used to flavor clarified butter.[165] The plant is protected by Israeli law, owing to its great popularity by the local peasantry, and their practice of foraging for its aromatic leaves.[166][167]
Satureja thymbra Whorled savory (Arabic: zaʻtar rūmī; zaʻtar farsī) In ancient times in the Land of Israel / Palestine, water in which whorled savory had been steeped was used to flavor meats that had been skewered and placed over hot coals for roasting.[168] Today, whorled savory has protected status under Israeli law.[169]
Scilla hanburyi Desert squill (Arabic: būsēl; unsūl; bilbays) A geophyte that grows in the Judean desert, the Dead Sea valley, and the Negev, whose underground bulb is extracted, cleansed and roasted to be eaten.[10] There are several species of Scilla that grow in the country, the most dominate of which in the central and northern parts of the country being the Autumn squill (Scilla autumnalis). The bulb of which is also used medicinally when prepared in wine vinegar.
Scolymus maculatus Spotted golden-thistle (Arabic: sinnāria; ṣinnāria; sunnāria; shōq el-fār) An edible thorn prevalent throughout the country, whose tender leafstalk can be eaten raw or cooked after the thorns have been carefully removed.[170][171] The plant is believed to be mentioned in the Mishnah (Shevi'it 9:5), based on the cognate Arabic-Hebrew word sinariyot. A similar edible thorn native to the country is Scolymus hispanicus (Spanish golden-thistle), growing in higher mountainous elevations over 500 metres (1,600 ft) above sea-level.[172]
Scorpiurus muricatus Prickly scorpiontail (Arabic: slika) Leaves, stems and roots eaten as fresh salad, and they can also be cooked in soups; seeds are also edible. Leaves are traditionally chopped and fried in a skillet with a little water, a dash of olive oil, salt, spring onions (scallions), garlic, lemon juice, and white pepper. Eaten as a relish with bread.[173] The plant blossoms in March–April.
Scorzonera judaica Jordanian viper's grass (Arabic: qaʻfūr; dhibāḥ saḥrāwī) The corms of this herb are eaten raw when young, but when the plant grows older they require either cooking or roasting before they can be eaten.[174] The bulbous root is frequently harvested by Bedouins and eaten raw, as also the leaves and flowers.[10] A similar species native to the country is Scorzonera papposa (Oriental viper's grass), also called in Arabic bashaʻ, khass berri and dhembāḥ, having the same edible corm, eaten raw early in the season and cooked as the plant ages.[175][176] The flowers, buds, leaves and stems of this species can also be eaten.[10]
Silene vulgaris White bladder campion (Arabic: faqai; libbēneh) Tender leaves and shoots browned in olive-oil and eaten as a garnish. A similar species, Silene aegyptiaca (Egyptian campion), also prevalent in the country, are eaten in the same way. Leaves may also be steamed.[177]
Silybum marianum Holy thistle (Arabic: khūrfēsh ej-jemal) The tender leafstalks of the rosette are edible, eaten either raw in a salad or cooked, after removing the thorns.[178][179] It is also possible to eat the young inflorescence stems and flower heads before opening, whose taste is similar to that of artichokes.[178] The plant blossoms in March–April.
Sinapis alba White mustard (Arabic: khardal) The leaves are stewed, while the dried seeds can be roasted to remove their pungency, then ground into a paste and made into a condiment with the yolks of boiled eggs, roasted wheat flour, treacle (date syrup), garlic and vinegar.[180][18][181][182][183]
Sisymbrium irio London rocket (Arabic: ḥwērre) Tender leaves eaten as a salad.[184][185] Stems and flowers are also edible.[10] The plant is used by the Bedouins as a substitute for tobacco.[26] The plant grows primarily in waste habitats and dunghills, especially near sheepfolds, where the soils are rich in nitrogen. A similar edible species is S. septulatum.
Suillus granulatus Weeping bolete; granulated bolete (Arabic: fuṭr; falghānah) An edible pine mushroom that grows alongside pine woods after the first major rainfall in winter.[186] The mushrooms are washed, sliced and either boiled or simmered in a skillet with a little water, salt and a dash of olive oil.
Taraxacum dens-leonis Common dandelion (Arabic: salaṭat; sarṭat er-ruḥbān) The dandelion is a leaf-vegetable whose leaves are consumed either raw as a salad, or cooked.[38] There are some 60 species of dandelion that grow in the northern hemisphere.[187]
Terfeziaceae Truffle (Arabic: kamā) An edible fungus resembling a potato that attaches itself to the root of the sunrose (Helianthemum sessiliflorum) in the Western Negev.[188][10] After thoroughly washing the sand off the truffle, it is either roasted or cooked as one would a potato, in either soup or beef stews.
Tordylium aegypticum Egyptian hartwort (Arabic: drehēme; dunemeh) An edible herb mentioned by Alois Musil and which is also common in Israel / Palestine. Other species of hartwort (Tordylium) native to the country include Tordylium carmeli (very common in the Upper Galilee and in Mount Carmel) and T. trachycarpum, both of whose leaves can be eaten as a salad herb or as a condiment in other foods.
Trigonella berythea Wild fenugreek (Arabic: ḥelbe; ḥilba; nafal) A legume used in, both, human consumption and in animal consumption. It is eaten as a green plant, but also its seed is prepared as a relish to be used in soups and for a sop.[189][190] The cultivated variety (Trigonella foenum-graecum), which also grows wild in Upper Galilee, reaches a height of 20–25 cm and, like its other wild counterparts, produces thin sickle-shaped seed pods of 9–13 cm containing brown seed grains of 3–5 mm in length.[189] Dried fenugreek seeds are finely ground into a flour, placed in a bowl where an abundance of water has been added and left to soak for 5 hours, at which time it greatly expands.[191] The excess water is then poured out. The soaked fenugreek flour is then beaten, until one is left with a frothy consistency.[191] While beating, a little water is gradually added again to the mixture, along with salt, crushed chili-peppers (Zhug) and chopped coriander leaves. Water is added to thin out the frothy relish and to reduce its bitterness.[191] There are more than 25 species of Trigonella that are native to the country, with Arabian fenugreek (Trigonella arabica), called by the Bedouins nafal, being very common in the northern Negev where it grows in concentrated, round patches (conspicuous by its greenery),[192] and its leaves [sic] (seeds) used to flavor clarified butter.[55]
Urtica urens Small nettle (Arabic: qūrrēs; gūrres) A plant that affords much protein when cooked and eaten. The stinging nettles are, at first, irritable when touched, but have no affect aft5 mm in length.er boiling in hot water.[193] Leaves and stems are cooked, but the stems are somewhat fibrous when eaten, although its pulp can easily be sucked out. The seeds of the nettle can also be collected and roasted to be eaten. In Israel / Palestine there are four species of nettle,[194] with Urtica pilulifera also being harvested in the wild, its leaves first steeped in hot water for a few minutes and then put into a food processor to be blended into a mash, whence it is made into a soup.[195]
Veronica syriaca (V. cymbalaria) Speedwell (Arabic: ḥwērre; ḥwērne; kibs) Used as a spice to flavor buttermilk and yogurt.[90]
Vicia spp. Vetch (Arabic: kirsenne; bīqa; bāqia fawēleh; ṭaqūsh el-bissī; jaylabān) Many species of wild vetch are native to the country, and all have small, edible seedpods, made palatable after cooking. Some of the varieties common to the country are the Barn vetch (Vicia monantha) which is known to the Bedouins under the name jaylabān,[10][196] the Palestine vetch (Vicia palaestina), called in Arabic kirsenne berri or ksēksa,[197][198][199] the Common vetch (Vicia sativa),[200] the Helmeted vetch (Vicia galeata),[201] among a host of others (V. narbonensis, V. hybrida, V.villosa, V. sericocarpa, V. peregrina, V. tenuifolia).

Trees[]

Although most fruit trees (e.g. grapes, figs, dates, olives, walnuts, plums, almonds, etc.) were cultivated in the country, some of these trees and vines can still be found in abandoned villages and state-owned properties, which make them accessible to all. Still, wild edible fruit trees are also plenteous in Israel / Palestine, of which these are the most common in their geographic regions:

Species Common name Observations
Arbutus andrachne Strawberry tree (Arabic: qēqab; qaṭleb) This perennial green tree finds its habitat in the mountainous regions of the historic Judea and Samaria (West Bank), as well as in Upper and Lower Galilee. It can be found in elevations as high as 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) above sea level. The small reddish-orange and tan-colored fruit can be harvested when ripe, and when laid up in a dark and dry place to dry for 2–4 weeks, becomes elastic in its texture and sweet to the palate, like candy. The strawberry tree is easily recognized by its smooth reddish-brown bark. Today, the strawberry tree is protected under Israeli law.[202]
Celtis australis Mediterranean hackberry (Arabic: mēs) A rare deciduous tree, now protected under Israeli law, whose succulent fruit is considered to be tasty and used in making jams.[203][204] The fruit ripens between the Gregorian calendar months of August and October. The tree is often found near ruins and at the entranceway to Arab villagers' houses, as it was thought to ward off evil spirits and the evil eye.[203] A confiture can be prepared from the fruit, by cooking the fruit in a pot of boiling water over a high heat, until the outer fleshy part (exocarp) separates from the stone, and the stones have sunken to the bottom of the pot.[205]
Ceratonia siliqua Carob tree (Arabic: kharrūb) A perennial green tree that yields in late summer an edible pod-like fruit containing a sweet mucilaginous pulp. The pods when collected can be eaten raw, or a beverage made from them by boiling the pods in a pot of water, to which ground cinnamon, lemon juice and sugar has been added. Allowed to cool and served. Today, the tree is protected under Israeli law.[206]
Cercis siliquastrum Judas tree (Arabic: khezriq; ʻarūs er-rabba; dāḍī; zemzarīq; shibruq; jezarūq) A tree that is considered an endangered species, for which it is now protected under Israeli law.[207] Its pink-lilac colored flowers bloom in late March and early April, are edible, and have a sweet-acid taste.[208] The florets have been used to flavor wine.[209]
Colutea istria Bladder senna (Arabic: sēsabān; saysib) Not a real senna, this deciduous shrub is common to the highlands of the central Negev, growing in semi-desert gulches along rock faces, and is now protected under Israeli law.[210] The shrub produces a fruit resembling a swollen pod, 5–6 cm long and is pointed at both ends. The fruit pods are scattered by the wind, and when they fall and roll upon the ground they break-open and their seeds scatter everywhere.[210] These seeds are edible.[10]
Cordia sinensis Cordia (Arabic: sujayil el-ʻaraf; dabbaq) The drupes of this rare tree are mostly eaten by birds, but are also fit for human consumption. Saadia Gaon thought that the uncultivated fruit of the ğūfnin (Hebrew: גופנן), mentioned in the Mishnah (Demai 1:1), was the Assyrian plum (Cordia myxa), formerly known in Arabic as el-sebastān, and which was prevalent in the marketplaces throughout Palestine in the 2nd-century of the Common Era.[211] Today, Cordia sinensis is protected by law, and found only in the Ein Gedi Nature Reserve, along the Dead Sea valley.[212]
Crataegus aronia Spiny hawthorn (Arabic: zaʻrūr; nebq) A deciduous tree now protected under Israeli law, and common throughout the historic hill country of Judea and Samaria, as well as in the Galilee.[213] The Arab peasantry (fellahin) would often collect the small yellow, apple-like fruit from which they would prepare a sweet fruit conserve, or hot drink.[214]
Ficus sycomorus Sycamore fig (Arabic: jumēz) The sycamore fig, although now extinct in many areas of the country, can still be seen in places in and around Ashkelon, along the coast. The tree is a prolific bearer of many small, edible reddish figs. The tree, however, is protected under Israeli law.[215] In the Middle Ages, the sycamore fig which grew along the coast of Palestine is said to have produced two kinds of small figs: one, the size of a hazel nut having a soft peel, and which was very sweet and juicy, known as el-belamy. The other, which grew in the vicinity of Gaza and whose fruit was smaller than el-belamy, was worth double its cost, being sweeter than el-belamy, yet without its juiciness and easier on the digestive tract.[216]
Nitraria retusa Salt tree; Nitre bush (Arabic: ḥabb el-ghurgud) A thorny, desert shrub, growing between 1–2 meters, and producing a sweet, edible red drupe, consumed mostly by birds, jackals and camels.[55] The shrub is found throughout the Negev, in ravines alongside watercourses and in salt flats.[10][217]
Phillyrea latifolia Broad-leaved phillyrea (Arabic: berza) A perennial green tree that grows wild throughout the country and which bears a small, round blueish-black fruit (4–5 mm.) having a tart, grape-like taste. The fruit ripens in the Fall. The tree is protected under Israeli law.[218]
Pinus pinea Stone pine (Arabic: snowbar) Once endemic to the country, almost all the native stands have been cut down to extinction, although now, largely due to reforestation, has been replanted in forests, gardens and in public places. The edible seed ripens in summer, once every 3 seasons, or in 2½ years after flowering.[219]
Pyrus syriaca Syrian pear (Arabic: injās berri) The fruit of this tree ripens in September, and there is only a short window of opportunity of about one-week to eat the fruit, since it quickly falls off the tree and begins to rot. The tree is found primarily in the mountainous districts of the country and in Galilee. The tree is protected under Israeli law.[220][221]
Quercus spp. Oak (Arabic: balūṭ; sindiyān; mallūl) There are five species of oak trees growing in Israel / Palestine, all of which are protected under Israeli law.[222] The acorns produced by these trees were very rarely used as food, although they, too, are edible after they have been leached to remove the tannins.[223] The leaching process is thought to have been similar to the preparation of acorn mush as noted in other cultures, such as the wiiwish of the North American Indians. Dalman noted that in Trans-Jordan acorns were consumed after first being roasted.[224] The book Alpha-Beta of Ben Sira mentions acorns (balūṭ) as food worthy of human consumption.
Rhus coriaria Sicilian sumac (Arabic: sūmmāq) A small deciduous tree whose reddish fruit has a sweet-and-sour taste, and, when finely chopped, is used to spice salads and cooked dishes.[225] The fleshy part of the sumac fruit is eaten fresh and has a lemony taste.[226] A similar sumac tree growing mainly north of the Judean desert in the Samaritan frontier on rocky cliffs and bearing edible berries is R. tripartita (Syrian sumac). Both shrubs are protected under Israeli law.[227][225][228]
Salvadora persica Toothbrush tree (Arabic: arāk; rāk; ḥumir) A perennial green tree resembling a large shrub, native to desert oases and the Dead Sea coastal region. Bears edible, but pungent, red berries.[55] The tree is protected under Israeli law.[229]
Ziziphus spina-christi Christ's thorn jujube (Arabic: nabk; sidr) The Christ's thorn jujube has a wide distribution all across the country, and is one of the few fruit trees that are known to yield fruit twice annually. They are most plentiful along the coastal plain and in the adjacent valley south of the Sea of Galilee. Today, the tree is protected under Israeli law.[230] Its small, round fruit, resembling small, yellow apples, has long been a reserve food source in times of need. The fruit is mentioned in the Mishnah (compiled in 189 CE) under the late Hebrew name rīmīn.[231] Preserves can be made from them. Al-Mukaddasi mentions that, in his day, people would prepare a porridge sweetened with the nabk fruit, after being spread out on reed mats to dry and stick together.[232]

See also[]

Further reading[]

  • Feinbrun-Dothan, Naomi; Danin, Avinoam; Plitmann, Uzi (1991). Analytical Flora of Eretz-Israel (המדריך לצמחי בר בארץ ישראל) (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Cana Publishing House. OCLC 715900165.
  • Mayer-Chissick, Uri; Lev, Efraim (2016). "Wild Edible Plants in Israel Tradition Versus Cultivation". In Yaniv, Zohara; Dudai, Nati (eds.). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. New York: Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 9789402406603. OCLC 1062304427.
  • Musil, A. (1908). Arabia Petraea (in German). Vol. 3 (Ethnologischer Reisebericht). Vienna (Wien): Alfred Hölder, for the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 152. OCLC 781988408. (contains a list of forty-one edible plant names but without a botanical determination)

References[]

  1. ^ a b Moldenke (1954), p. 159
  2. ^ Lev-Yadun (1999), p. 219
  3. ^ Dalman (2013), pp. 347–348
  4. ^ Dalman (2013), pp. 348–349
  5. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 349
  6. ^ Richard B. Lee & Richard Daly, “Introduction: Foragers & Others,” in: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters & Gatherers (Cambridge University Press, 1999), ISBN 052157109X, pp. 1–20.
  7. ^ Nathan ben Abraham (1955), s.v. Sheviit, ch. 7
  8. ^ Osborn (1968), p. 175
  9. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 158
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Bailey, et al. (1981), p. 154
  11. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 352, who mentions Allium porrum, a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum.
  12. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 237
  13. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 95
  14. ^ Amar (2015), p. 94
  15. ^ Danby (1933), p. 49 (note 2)
  16. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. ירבוז‎, pp. 414–423
  17. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 68–69
  18. ^ a b c d Dalman (2013), pp. 351, 381
  19. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. כרפס‎, pp. 518–519
  20. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 324
  21. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 61
  22. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 257–258
  23. ^ a b Osborn (1968), p. 165
  24. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 404
  25. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 11, p. 152
  26. ^ a b Bailey, et al. (1981), p. 158
  27. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 329
  28. ^ a b Bercovici (2020), pp. 118–119
  29. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. לוף‎, pp. 536–553
  30. ^ Mayer-Chissick, et al. (2014), pp. 18–20
  31. ^ Jaine, Tom (2014). "Arum". In Davidson, Alan; Jain, Tom (eds.). Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199677337.
  32. ^ Theophrastus, Enquiry into Plants (vol. 2), [Book VII, Chapter XII, Paragraph 2], p. 125 in the Loeb Classical Library series: "The root of cuckoo-pint (Arum) is also edible, and so are the leaves, if they are first boiled down in vinegar." See: Theophrasts (1916). "Enquiry into Plants". doi:10.4159/DLCL.theophrastus-enquiry_plants.1916. Retrieved 7 February 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)  – via digital Loeb Classical Library (subscription required)
  33. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 120
  34. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. לופית‎, p. 555
  35. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 329
  36. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 343
  37. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 152–153
  38. ^ a b c Dalman (2013), p. 351
  39. ^ Krispil (2000), p. 53
  40. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 31
  41. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. אסתום‎, pp. 84–87
  42. ^ a b c d e f Dalman (2013), p. 352
  43. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 408
  44. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. מלוח‎, p. 654
  45. ^ Bailey, et al. (1981), pp. 154-155
  46. ^ Shmid (2005), p. 417
  47. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 336
  48. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 171
  49. ^ John H. Wiersema. "GRIN". Ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2013-12-15.
  50. ^ Cf. Babylonian Talmud (Berakhot 36a–b
  51. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 351
  52. ^ a b Bercovici (2020), pp. 106–107
  53. ^ a b Mayer-Chissick (2010), pp. 166–167
  54. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 172
  55. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bailey, et al. (1981), p. 155
  56. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 350, who erroneously classified the same plant as common chicory (C. intybus).
  57. ^ Krispil (2000), p. 180
  58. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 11, p. 180
  59. ^ Danby (1933), p. 138 (Pesahim 2:6)
  60. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 201
  61. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. יחנוק‎, p. 375
  62. ^ Pieroni, Andrea (2005), p. 31
  63. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. מלוכיה‎, pp. 664–666
  64. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 182
  65. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 39
  66. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. גד השדה‎, pp. 100–103
  67. ^ Danby (1933), p. 49 (note 2)
  68. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 358
  69. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 106
  70. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 20
  71. ^ a b Dalman (2013), p. 353
  72. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 19
  73. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 325
  74. ^ Amar (2004), p. 30
  75. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 55
  76. ^ Wild edible plants, s.v. טוריים מצויים‎ (in Hebrew)
  77. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. טוריים‎, p. 344
  78. ^ Krispil (2000), p. 113
  79. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 379
  80. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 182
  81. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. מקור-חסידה‎, pp. 692–701
  82. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 112–113
  83. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 364
  84. ^ a b Dalman (2020), p. 351
  85. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. בן-חרדל‎, pp. 88–91
  86. ^ Amar (2012), p. 195
  87. ^ Cf. Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 18b)
  88. ^ Amar (2015), pp. 88–89
  89. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 302
  90. ^ a b Dalman (2013), p. 350
  91. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 212
  92. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 351
  93. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), pp. 123–125
  94. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 350
  95. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 362
  96. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 161–162
  97. ^ Lev-Yadun (1999), p. 217
  98. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 236, s.v. Gundelia tournefortii
  99. ^ Dalman (2013), pp. 348–349
  100. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 350
  101. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 300
  102. ^ Qafif (1982), p. 215 (s.v. טרוש‎)
  103. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 297
  104. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 160
  105. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 151
  106. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 11, p. 66
  107. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 186–187
  108. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 178–185
  109. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 97
  110. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 351
  111. ^ Dalman (2013), p.351
  112. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 97
  113. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 176, s.v. לוטוס שעיר‎, where he discusses the לוטוס נאכל‎.
  114. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 321
  115. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 132
  116. ^ Wild edible plants, s.v. תורמוס ארץ-ישראלי‎ (in Hebrew)
  117. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 300
  118. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 342
  119. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 315
  120. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. מעוג‎, pp. 680–687
  121. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 145
  122. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 161
  123. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 325
  124. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 36
  125. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 104
  126. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. אהל מצוי‎
  127. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 309
  128. ^ Mandaville (2011), 116-117
  129. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 48
  130. ^ Witztum (1992), p. 149
  131. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 312
  132. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 41
  133. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 343
  134. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 350
  135. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 279
  136. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. ברקן סורי‎, pp. 96–99
  137. ^ Krispil (2000), p. 67
  138. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 232
  139. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 11, pp. 322–327
  140. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 27
  141. ^ Dalman (2013), pp. 352, 559
  142. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 348
  143. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, p. 189
  144. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 159
  145. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 414
  146. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 267
  147. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 225
  148. ^ Bailey, et al. (1981), p. 156
  149. ^ Danby (1933), p. 49 (note 2)
  150. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 209
  151. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, p. 47
  152. ^ Wild edible plants, s.v. פרסיון גדול‎ (in Hebrew)
  153. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 196
  154. ^ Wild edible plants, s.v. צנון מצוי‎ (in Hebrew)
  155. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 110–111
  156. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 348
  157. ^ a b Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 26
  158. ^ a b Krispil (2000), pp. 90–91
  159. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 293
  160. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 357
  161. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 11, p. 58; vol. 12, pp. 96, 175
  162. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 341
  163. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 18
  164. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1984), s.v. חומעה ורודה‎, pp. 222–231
  165. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 108
  166. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 321
  167. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 382
  168. ^ Solomon Sirilio, Commentary on Jerusalem Talmud (Terumot 10:2 [52a]), s.v. מי צתרי. The discussion in the Jerusalem Talmud revolves around Terumah (heave-offering) which can only be eaten by Jewish priests in a state of ritual cleanness. In this case, whorly savory which was cultivated in one's garden and had been picked, its owner separated therefrom the designated tithes (heave-offering) meant for the priests, and when he had given the portion designated to the priests, the priest took water in which the same whorly savory had been steeped and sprinkled it over skewers of meat laid over hot coals in order to impart the plant's aroma and flavour to the meat. The question asked was whether a regular skewer of meat which lay alongside of it was permitted to be eaten by an outsider who was not of the priestly clan, although it too had absorbed the aroma of the other skewer belonging to the priest (P'nei Moshe Commentary and Sirilio's Commentary)
  169. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 349
  170. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 350
  171. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 164–165
  172. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 157
  173. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1984), s.v. זנב-עקרב שיכני‎, pp. 186–ff.
  174. ^ Shmida (2005), p.154
  175. ^ Dalman (2013), p, 351
  176. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 169
  177. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 105
  178. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 281
  179. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983), s.v. גדילן מצוי‎, pp. 96–99
  180. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 161
  181. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 347
  182. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 115–116
  183. ^ In Jewish classical writings there are reminisces of its preparation. See, for example, Tosefta Yom-Tov 3:15 on how mustard seeds were put to the coals to remove their pungency; Tosefta Shabbat 14:14 on how treacle (date syrup) (Hebrew: devash) was added to the mustard paste; Mishnah Shabbat 20:2, on how that eggs were one of the ingredients used in its preparation; Ben-Ish Hai (Halakhot), Mishpatim - 2nd year, section 18, on how the usual practice was to add vinegar and crushed garlic to the mustard paste. Some add 2 tbsps. of olive oil to the paste, as well as ½ tsp. of salt, ½ tsp. of ground coriander seeds and 1 tsp. of turmeric for added flavor (Mayer-Chissick, 2010, p. 76).
  184. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 218
  185. ^ Wild edible plants, s.v. תודרה סייגית‎ (in Hebrew)
  186. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 9, pp. 131–132
  187. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 214
  188. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 216
  189. ^ a b Dalman (2020), p. 322
  190. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 42
  191. ^ a b c Qafih (1982), p. 211
  192. ^ Shmida (1988), p. 46
  193. ^ Bercovici (2020), pp. 88–89
  194. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 418
  195. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 80
  196. ^ Bailey, et al. (1981), p. 162
  197. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 276
  198. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 197
  199. ^ Dalman (2020), p. 317
  200. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 278
  201. ^ Bercovici (2020), p. 201
  202. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 88
  203. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 406
  204. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 69
  205. ^ Ḳrispil, Nissim (1985), s.v. מיש‎, pp. 642–644
  206. ^ Shmida (2005), p.395
  207. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 304
  208. ^ Dalman (2013a), p. 69
  209. ^ Nathan ben Abraham (1955), vol. 1, s.v. Shevi'it, ch. 7, p. 26a [51]
  210. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 208
  211. ^ Amar (2015), pp. 57–58
  212. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 80
  213. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 75
  214. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 25
  215. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 422
  216. ^ Amar (2004), pp. 116–117
  217. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 57
  218. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 382
  219. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 375
  220. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 27
  221. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, p. 134
  222. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 25–29
  223. ^ Bercovici (2020) pp. 70–71
  224. ^ Dalman (2013), p. 578
  225. ^ a b Shmida (2005), p. 240
  226. ^ Mayer-Chissick (2010), p. 210
  227. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 241
  228. ^ Alon (1993), vol. 10, pp. 212–213
  229. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 253
  230. ^ Shmida (2005), p. 260
  231. ^ Amar (2015), p. 150
  232. ^ Al-Mukaddasi (1886), p. 204 (see Guy Le Strange, Palestine Under the Moslims, p. 18

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