Artemis HLS development history

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The HLS (Human Landing System) spacecraft is a critical component of NASA's Artemis program to land humans on the Moon. HLS will convey astronauts from the Gateway station in lunar orbit to the lunar surface, sustain them there, and then return them to the Gateway station.

Rather than leading the HLS development effort internally, NASA elected to have commercial vendors compete to design and develop this system. NASA produced a set of requirements. NASA also presented a reference design, but encouraged vendors to propose alternatives that could meet the requirements. Each selected contractor was to deliver two landers: one for an uncrewed test lunar landing, and one to be used as the first Artemis crewed lander. This process started in 2019. In the third step of this process a single design, Starship HLS, was selected in 2021, with the crewed flight to occur in 2024 as part of the Artemis 3 mission.[1][2][needs update]

In addition to the initial contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort.

Reference design[]

The Advanced Exploration Lander, a reference HLS design

The Advanced Exploration Lander is a 2018 NASA design concept for a three-stage lander, intended to serve as a design reference mission for the commercial HLS design proposals. After departure from the Gateway station in its lunar Near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO), a transfer module would take the lander and embarked crew to a low lunar orbit and then separate. The descent module would then land itself and the ascent module carrying the crew on the lunar surface. A crew of up to four could spend up to two weeks on the surface before reboarding the ascent module, which would take them back to the Gateway. Each of the three modules would have a mass of approximately 12 to 15 metric tons and would be delivered separately by commercial launchers and integrated at the Gateway.[3] Both the ascent and transfer modules could potentially be designed to be reused, with the descent module intended to be left on the lunar surface.[3]

In the basic operations concept, astronauts would board the lander at the Gateway's NRHO that goes between about 1,000 and 70,000 kilometers (620 and 43,500 miles) above the Moon, and the circular low orbit approximately 100 kilometers (62 miles) altitude.

Preliminary HLS studies[]

Further information: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships

In December 2018 NASA announced that it was issuing a formal request for proposals as Appendix E of NextSTEP-2 allowing American companies to submit bids for the design and development of new reusable systems allowing astronauts to land on the lunar surface.[4] On February 14, 2019, NASA hosted an Industry Forum at NASA HQ to provide an overview of the Human Landing System (HLS) Broad Agency Announcement (BAA).[5]

In April 2019 NASA announced a formal request for proposals (RFP) for Appendix H of NextSTEP-2 allowing American companies to submit bids for the design and development of the Ascent Element of the Human Landing System (HLS) including the cabin used during landings.[6] This was quickly extended to cover an option for an integrated lander - a single vehicle that performs transfer, descent, and ascent.[7] Proposals were due by November 15, 2019.

Design competition[]

Five companies responded to NASA's request for proposal by the November 2019 deadline, and after evaluating the proposals, NASA selected three.[8] In April 2020, NASA awarded separate contracts totaling US$967 million in design development funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX to begin 10-month-long design processes.[9][10][1] The companies/teams selected in the 2020 design awards were the "National Team" led by Blue Origin[a], with US$579 million in NASA design funding; Dynetics, including SNC and other unspecified companies, with US$253 million in NASA funding; and SpaceX with a modified Starship spacecraft design called Starship HLS, with US$135 million in NASA design funding.[9][11]

Although the HLS initial design phase was planned to be a ten-month program ending in February 2021,[10][1] NASA delayed the selection process and announcement by two months.[12] NASA planned to select up to two contractors at the end of the 12-month design development program.[12]

The companies were bidding on a contract to provide design, development, build, test, and evaluation of an HLS, plus two lunar landings, one uncrewed and one crewed, for a fixed price.[13] NASA evaluated the bids based on three evaluation factors: technical merit, managerial ability, and price, in that order, and found SpaceX better.[13]

NASA evaluation [13]
Factor SpaceX Blue Origin Dynetics
Technical Acceptable Acceptable Marginal
Management Outstanding Very Good Very Good
Bid price
US$ billion 		2.94 5.99 9.08

On 16 April 2021, NASA selected only a single lander — Starship HLS — to move on to a full-up development contract.[14] NASA awarded a US$2.89 billion contract to SpaceX to develop the Starship HLS lander and to provide two operational lunar missions — one uncrewed demonstration mission, and one crewed lunar landing — as early as 2025.[15][16][17] NASA had stated that they preferred to award an additional contract, but that insufficient funds were appropriated by Congress to allow the awarding of a second contract. This had been stated as a possible outcome in the contract solicitation.

Design and development contracts
Company Vehicles contract award
US$ million
design develop
Boeing The Boeing Lunar Lander consisted of a descent and ascent stage, to be launched on an SLS Block 1B rather than assembled in multiple launches. None N/A
Vivace A two stage HLS with an appearance similar[according to whom?] to the Altair LSAM.[8] None N/A
National
Team[a]		 The Integrated Lander Vehicle (ILV), a three-element lunar lander (transfer, descent, and ascent elements) with each element to be launched via either New Glenn or ULA Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle and assembled in lunar orbit. 579 None
Dynetics Dynetics HLS, an integrated single-stage system, would launch on either the ULA Vulcan Centaur or NASA's Space Launch System.[18] 253 None
SpaceX Starship HLS, single stage Lunar design variation of the SpaceX Starship spacecraft, launched by the Super Heavy booster and serving as its own second stage to reach low-Earth orbit (LEO). Refueled by multiple Starship tanker spacecraft in LEO before boosting itself to lunar orbit to meet the Gateway and Orion crew capsule. Moves between Gateway and the lunar surface as a lunar SSTO. 135 2890

Post-competition protests and litigation[]

Main article: Blue Origin v. United States & Space Exploration Technologies Corp.

On 26 April 2021, both Blue Origin and Dynetics filed formal protests with the US Government Accountability Office claiming that NASA had improperly evaluated aspects of the proposals.[19][20] On 30 April 2021, NASA suspended the Starship HLS contract and funding until such time as the GAO could issue a ruling on the protests.[21][22] In May 2021, Sen. Cantwell, from Blue Origin's state of Washington, introduced an amendment to the "Endless Frontier Act" that directed NASA to reopen the HLS competition and select a second lander proposal, authorized spending of an additional US$10 billion. This funding would require a separate appropriations act. Sen. Sanders criticized the amendment as a "multibillion dollar Bezos bailout", as the money would likely go to Blue Origin, which was founded by Jeff Bezos.[23][24][25][26] The act, including this amendment, was passed by the Senate on 8 June 2021.[27][28][needs update]

On 30 July 2021, the GAO rejected the protests and found that "NASA did not violate procurement law" in awarding the contract to SpaceX, who bid a much lower cost and more capable system.[13][29][30] Nevertheless, CNBC reported on 4 August that "Jeff Bezos’ space company remains on the offensive in criticizing NASA’s decision to award Elon Musk’s SpaceX with the sole contract to build a vehicle to land astronauts on the moon" and the company had produced an infographic highlighting several Starship deficiencies compared to the Blue Origin proposal, but noted the infographic avoided showing the Blue Origin bid price as roughly double the SpaceX bid price.[31] Soon after the appeal was rejected, NASA made the contracted initial payment of US$300M to SpaceX.[32]

On 13 August 2021, Blue Origin filed a lawsuit in the US Court of Federal Claims challenging "NASA’s unlawful and improper evaluation of proposals."[33][34] Blue Origin asked the court for an injunction to halt further spending by NASA on the existing contract with SpaceX.[35] Reaction to the lawsuit was mostly negative in the space community, at NASA, and among Blue Origin employees according to space journalist Eric Berger.[36] The judge dismissed the suit on 4 November 2021 and NASA was allowed to resume working with SpaceX.[37]

Starship HLS[]

Main article: Starship HLS

The Starship Human Landing System (Starship HLS) was the winner selected by NASA for potential use for long-duration crewed lunar landings as part of NASA's Artemis program.[15][17]

The Starship HLS is a modified configuration of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft, optimized to operate on and around the Moon. As a result, the heat shield and flight control surfaces — parts of the main Starship design needed for atmospheric reentry — are not included in Starship HLS. The entire spacecraft will land on the moon and will then launch from the moon. If needed, the variant will use high-thrust CH4/O2 RCS thrusters located mid-body on Starship HLS during the final "tens of meters" of the terminal lunar descent and landing, and will be powered by a solar array located on its nose below the docking port. Elon Musk stated that Starship HLS would be able to deliver "potentially up to 200 tons" to the lunar surface.

Starship HLS would be launched to Earth orbit using the SpaceX Super Heavy booster, and would use a series of tanker spacecraft to refuel Starship HLS vehicle in earth orbit for lunar transit and lunar landing operations. Starship HLS would then act as its own transit vehicle to reach lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. In the mission concept, a NASA Orion spacecraft would carry a NASA crew to the lander where they would depart and descend to the surface of the Moon. After lunar surface operations, Starship HLS would liftoff from the lunar surface acting as a SSTO and return the crew to Orion.

NASA did highlight two weaknesses with SpaceX’s proposal. Starship’s propulsion systems were described as “notably complex,” and the report referred to prior delays under the Commercial Crew program and Falcon Heavy launch vehicle development as evidence for potential threats to their development schedule.[9]

Unselected proposals[]

Integrated Lander Vehicle[]

Main article: Integrated Lander Vehicle

The Integrated Lander Vehicle (ILV) or National Human Landing System (NHLS) was a lunar lander design concept proposed by the "National Team" which is led by Blue Origin, along with Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper Laboratory as major partners.

The main selling point[according to whom?] of the lander was that all the components have been in development in one form or another for some time.[citation needed] The transfer stage is based on the Cygnus spacecraft, the Blue Moon will be used as the descent stage, and the ascent stage will be based on the Orion spacecraft..[citation needed] It was to be launched in three parts on either the New Glenn and Vulcan Centaur but could also be launched on a single SLS Block 1B.[citation needed]

In the 28 April 2020 HLS source selection statement, NASA stated that the vehicle passes all requirements but faces risks with its power, propulsion, and communications systems which pose a significant risk to the developmental timeline.[9][1]

Dynetics ALPACA HLS[]

Main article: Dynetics HLS

The Dynetics ALPACA (Autonomous Logistics Platform for All-Moon Cargo Access) Human Landing System design concept was proposed by Dynetics and Sierra Nevada Corporation as well as a number of subcontractors. The vehicle design consists of a single-stage lander powered by methalox engines, although a previous design used drop tanks. ALPACA was proposed to launch on a Vulcan Centaur or SLS Block 1B rocket, and be refueled by up to three Vulcan Centaur tanker flights. Ultimately, NASA did not select the proposal, citing negative mass margins and an experimental thrust structure, which could pose threat to development time.[38][39]

Boeing HLS[]

Main article: Boeing Lunar Lander

The Boeing Human Landing System proposal was submitted to NASA in early November 2019. The two-stage lander was designed to launch on a single SLS Block 1B. Boeing had partnered with Intuitive Machines to provide engines,[40] and also planned to reuse technologies from their Starliner spacecraft.[41] An alternative plan for launching the lander was also detailed: In the event the SLS Block 1B was not ready by 2024, the descent stage could launch on an SLS Block 1 while the ascent stage would be launched by a commercial launcher and assembled in lunar orbit.[42] The Boeing proposal was not selected for design funding by NASA in the April 2020 design funding announcements.[43]

Vivace HLS[]

The Vivace Human Landing System was a lunar landing concept by aerospace firm Vivace. Little is known about the vehicle other than its resemblance to NASA's Altair lunar lander from the Constellation program. Only one image of the lander can be found on their website's gallery page Vivace's concept was not selected for design funding.[8]

Alternative design studies[]

In addition to the design and development RFP for Appendix H of NextSTEP-2, NASA announced 11 contracts worth US$45.5 million in total for Appendix E of NextSTEP-2 in May 2019. These were short-term studies on transfer vehicles, descent elements, descent element prototypes, refueling element studies and prototypes. One of the requirements was that selected companies would contribute at least 20% of the total cost of the project "to reduce costs to taxpayers and encourage early private investments in the lunar economy".[44]

A second set of contracts totalling $146 million was awarded on September 14, 2021.[45] These contracts are for studies of a second-generation HLS that is to be used for missions after Artemis 3. As with the first set of contracts, NASA intended to award more than one HLS if there is sufficient funding.

Additional studies
Date Company Amount Contract
May
2019		 Aerojet Rocketdyne One transfer vehicle study
Blue Origin One descent element study, one transfer vehicle study, and one transfer vehicle prototype
Boeing One descent element study, two descent element prototypes, one transfer vehicle study, one transfer vehicle prototype, one refueling element study, and one refueling element prototype
Dynetics One descent element study and five descent element prototypes
Lockheed Martin Space Systems One descent element study, four descent element prototypes, one transfer vehicle study, and one refueling element study
Masten Space Systems One descent element prototype
Maxar (formerly SSL) One refueling element study and one refueling element prototype
Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems One descent element study, four descent element prototypes, one refueling element study, and one refueling element prototype
OrbitBeyond Two refueling element prototypes
Sierra Nevada Corporation One descent element study, one descent element prototype, one transfer vehicle study, one transfer vehicle prototype, and one refueling element study
SpaceX One descent element study, one descent element prototype
September
2021		 Blue Origin $25.6 million
Dynetics $40.8 million
Lockheed Martin $35.2 million
Northrop Grumman $34.8 million
SpaceX $9.4 million

Follow-on programs[]

In 2021, NASA began studies on the future Lunar Exploration Transportation Services (LETS) for regular trips between the Gateway station, lunar orbits, and the lunar surface; for sustainable HLS operations.[46]

Notes[]

  1. ^ a b the "National Team" is led by Blue Origin with partners Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper

References[]

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