Authorship of the Bible
Part of a series on the |
Bible |
---|
![]() |
Outline of Bible-related topics![]() |
Table I gives an overview of the periods and dates ascribed to the various books of the Bible. Tables II, III and IV outline the conclusions of the majority of contemporary scholars on the composition of the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament, the deuterocanonical works (also called the Apocrypha), and the New Testament. Some books are considered pseudepigrapha - the person traditionally cited as the author is not the person who actually wrote the text; for some books there appear to have been multiple authors.
Table I: Chronological overview (Hebrew Bible / Old Testament)[]
This table summarises the chronology of the Hebrew Bible, which has the same books as the Protestant Old Testament; these date from between the 8th and 2nd centuries BCE. The additional books in the Catholic and Orthodox bibles can be found in the table on the deuterocanonical works, and date from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE (see Table III); the New Testament writings from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE (see Table IV). Dates are approximate, and represent, as closely as Wikipedia's editors can judge, the opinions of the majority of current biblical scholars.
Period | Books |
---|---|
Monarchic 8th–6th centuries BCE c. 745–586 BCE |
|
Exilic 6th century BCE 586–539 BCE |
|
Post-exilic Persian 6th–4th centuries BCE 538–330 BCE |
|
Post-exilic Hellenistic 4th–2nd centuries BCE 330–164 BCE |
|
Maccabean/Hasmonean/Roman 2nd century BCE – 1st century CE 164–4 BCE |
Table II: Hebrew Bible / Protestant Old Testament[]
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, is the collection of scriptures making up the Bible used by Judaism; the same books, in a slightly different order, also make up the Protestant version of the Old Testament. The order used here follows the divisions used in Jewish Bibles.
Torah | |
---|---|
Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy |
Scholars are broadly agreed in placing the Torah in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE). [28] Deuteronomy, the oldest of the five books, originated in the second half of the 7th century BCE as the law-code contained in Deuteronomy 5–26; chapters 1–4 and 29–30 were added around the end of the Babylonian exile when it became the introduction to the Deuteronomistic history (Joshua–2 Kings), and the remaining chapters were added in the late Persian period when it was revised to conclude Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers.[29] The tradition behind the books stretches back some two hundred years to a point in the late 7th century BCE,[30] but questions surrounding the number and nature of the sources involved, and the processes and dates, remain unsettled. [31] Many theories have been advanced to explain the social and political background behind the composition of the Torah, but two have been especially influential.[32] The first of these, Persian Imperial authorisation, advanced by Peter Frei in 1985, holds that the Persian authorities required the Jews of Jerusalem to present a single body of law as the price of local autonomy.[33] Frei's theory was demolished at a symposium held in 2000, but the relationship between the Persian authorities and Jerusalem remains a crucial question.[34] The second theory, associated with Joel P. Weinberg and called the "Citizen-Temple Community", proposes that the Exodus story was composed to serve the needs of the post-exilic Jewish community, serving as an "identity card" defining who belonged to "Israel."[35] |
Prophets | |
Former Prophets:
Joshua |
The proposal that Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings make up a unified work (the Deuteronomistic History) was advanced by Martin Noth in 1943 and has been widely accepted, with revisions. [8] Noth proposed that the entire history was the creation of a single individual, who was working in the exilic period (6th century BCE). Since then, there has been wide recognition that the history appeared in at least two "editions", the first in the reign of Judah's King Josiah (late 7th century BCE), the second during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE). [8] Few scholars accept his idea that History was the work of a single individual.[36] |
Three Major Prophets:
Isaiah |
Isaiah includes the work of three or more prophets.[37] The nucleus of Proto-Isaiah (chapters 1–39) contains the words of the original Isaiah; Deutero-Isaiah (chapters 40–55) is from an anonymous Exilic author, and Trito-Isaiah (chapters 56–66) is a post-exilic anthology.[38][39] Other anonymous authors and editors have been quoted in various passages of these three: chapters 36–39, for example, have been copied from 2 Kings 18–20, and the Suffering Servant poems, now scattered through Isaiah 42, 49, 50 and 52, were probably an independent composition.[2][40] Jeremiah exists in two versions, Greek (the version used in Orthodox Bibles) and Hebrew (Jewish, Catholic and Protestant Bibles), with the Greek probably finalised in the early Persian period and the Hebrew dating from some point between then and the 2nd century BCE.[12] The two differ significantly, with the Greek version generally regarded as being more authentic.[41] Scholars find it difficult to identify the words of the historic prophet Jeremiah, although the text presumably preserves his orally-delivered sayings, the text itself is the end-product of a long process involving, among others, Exilic Deuteronomists, post-exilic restorationists, and later editors and authors responsible for the modern Greek and Hebrew texts.[42] Ezekiel presents itself as the words of the Ezekiel ben-Buzi, a priest of Jerusalem living in exile in Babylon.[43] While the book probably reflects much of the historic Ezekiel, it is the product of a long and complex history.[44] There is general agreement that the final product is the product of a highly educated priestly circle, which owed allegiance to the historical Ezekiel and was closely associated with the Second Temple.[45] Like Jeremiah, it exists in a longer Hebrew edition (Jewish, Catholic and Protestant Bibles) and a shorter Greek version, with the Greek, probably representing an earlier stage of transmission. [46] |
Twelve Minor Prophets | The Twelve Minor Prophets is a single book in Jewish bibles, and this seems to have been the case since the first few centuries before the current era.[47] With the exception of Jonah, which is a fictional work, it is generally assumed that there exists an original core of tradition behind each book that can be attributed to the prophet for whom it is named, but the dates for several of the books (Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi) are debated.[48][49][50]
|
Writings | |
Poetic books: Psalms Proverbs Job |
|
Five Scrolls Canticles Ruth Lamentations Ecclesiastes Esther |
|
Histories Daniel Ezra–Nehemiah Chronicles |
|
Table III: Deuterocanonical Old Testament[]
The deuterocanonical books are works included in Catholic and Orthodox but not in Jewish and Protestant Bibles.
Book | |
---|---|
Book of Tobit | Tobit can be dated to 225–175 BCE based on its use of language and lack of knowledge of the 2nd century BCE persecution of Jews. [70] |
1 Esdras | 1 Esdras is based on Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah.[71] |
2 Esdras | 2 Esdras is a composite work combining texts from the 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries CE.[72] |
Book of Judith | Judith is of uncertain origin, but probably dates from the second half of the 2nd century BCE.[73] |
1 Maccabees | 1 Maccabees is the work of an educated Jewish historian writing around 100 BCE.[74] |
2 Maccabees | 2 Maccabees is a revised and condensed version of a work by an otherwise unknown author called Jason of Cyrene, plus passages by the anonymous editor who made the condensation (called "the Epitomist"). Jason most probably wrote in the mid to late 2nd century BCE and the Epitomist before 63 BCE.[75] |
3 Maccabees | 3 Maccabees was probably written by a Jew of Alexandria c. 100–75 BCE.[76] |
4 Maccabees | 4 Maccabees was probably composed in the middle half of the 1st century CE by a Jew living in Roman Syria or Asia Minor.[77] |
Wisdom of Sirach | Sirach (known under several titles) names its author as Jesus ben Sirach, probably a scribe offering instruction to the youth of Jerusalem.[78] His grandson's preface to the Greek translation indirectly dates the work to the first quarter of the 2nd century BCE.[78] |
Wisdom of Solomon | The Wisdom of Solomon probably dates from 100 to 50 BCE, and originated with the Pharisees of the Egyptian Jewish community.[79] |
Additions to Esther | The Additions to Esther in the Greek translation date from the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE.[23] |
Additions to Daniel | The three Additions to Daniel – the Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon – probably date from the 2nd century BCE, although Bel is difficult to place.[80] |
Prayer of Manasseh | The Prayer of Manasseh probably dates from the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE.[81] |
Baruch and Letter of Jeremiah | Baruch was probably written in the 2nd century BCE – part of it, the Letter of Jeremiah, is sometimes treated as a separate work.[82] |
Additional psalms | The additional psalms are numbered 151–155; some at least are pre-Christian in origin, being found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. [83] |
Table IV: New Testament[]
Gospels and Acts | |
---|---|
Gospel of Mark | ![]() Mark, like all the gospels, is anonymous. An early church tradition attributed it to John Mark (Mark the Evangelist), supposed to be a companion of the Apostle Peter during his evangelical journeys, but it is now recognised that it relies on several underlying sources, varying in form and theology, and the authorship of John Mark is therefore rejected by most modern scholars.[84] It does, however, emphasize the authority of Peter, and this and various other elements, including the broadness of the basic theology, suggest that the author wrote in Roman Syria or Palestine for a non-Jewish, Christian community that had absorbed pre-Pauline (i.e. Petrine) beliefs and then developed them further independently of Paul. [85] Mark is usually dated immediately before or after the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, with the absence of concrete details on the capture suggesting a date immediately before as most probable.[85] The basis of this conclusion in chapter 13 of Mark, a speech of Jesus in which he predicts that the return of the Son of Man and the advent of the Kingdom of God will be signalled by the appearance of the "abomination of desolation."[86] The chapter begins with Jesus in the temple informing his disciples that "not one stone here will be left on another, all will be thrown down;" the disciples ask when this will happen, and in Mark 13:14 Jesus tells them: "[W]hen you see the abomination of desolation standing where he ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains..." Mark's terminology is drawn from the Book of Daniel, but he places the fulfilment in his own day,[87] underlining this in Mark 13:30 by stating that "this generation will not pass away before all these things take place."[88] While Daniel's "abomination" was probably a pagan altar or sacrifice, the grammar in Mark uses a masculine participle for "standing", indicating a concrete historical person: several candidates have been suggested, but the most likely is the Roman general (and future emperor) Titus.[89][90] |
Gospel of Matthew | The majority of modern scholars believe it is unlikely that this gospel was written by an eyewitness to the ministry of Jesus.[91] Internal evidence suggests that the author was an ethnic Jewish male scribe from a Hellenised city, possibly Antioch in Syria,[92] and that he used a variety of oral traditions and written sources about Jesus, most importantly Mark and the hypothetical collection of sayings known as the Q source.[93]
Most scholars prefer a date around 80-90 CE.[94] This is based on three strands of evidence: (a) the setting of Matthew reflects the final separation of Church and Synagogue, about 85 CE; (b) it reflects the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman Empire in 70 CE; (c) it uses Mark, usually dated around 70 CE, as a source.[95] |
Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles | There is general agreement that Luke and Acts originated as a two-volume work by a single author.[96] This author was an "amateur Hellenistic historian", who was versed in Greek rhetoric, that being the standard training for historians in the ancient world.[97] In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us" and to have undertaken a "careful investigation", but does not mention his own name or explicitly claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events. The we passage in Acts are written in the first person plural—the author never refers to himself as "I" or "me"—and these are usually regarded as fragments of some earlier account which were incorporated into Acts by the later author, or simply a Greek rhetorical device which was used for describing sea voyages.[98]
Around 80–90 CE, with some scholars suggesting 90–100.[99]If Acts uses Josephus as a source, as has been proposed, then it must have been composed after 93 CE; the social situation in which the faithful need "shepherds" to protect them from heretical "wolves" also reflects a late date.[100] There is evidence, both textual (the conflicts between Western and Alexandrian manuscript families) and from the 2nd century Marcionite controversy, that Luke-Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.[101] |
Gospel of John | John 21:24 identifies the "disciple whom Jesus loved" as the author of at least some of the gospel, and from the late 2nd century this figure, unnamed in the Gospel itself, was identified as John the Evangelist, the author of the entire gospel.[102] Today, however, most scholars agree that John 21 is an appendix to the Gospel, which originally ended at John 20:30–31,[103] and believe that the author made use of two major sources, a "Signs" source (a collection of seven miracle stories) and a "Discourse" source.[104]
Scholars date John to 90–110 CE, with the lower date based on internal reference to the expulsion of Christians from the synagogues, and the upper on external evidence that the gospel was known in the early 2nd century.[105] |
Pauline epistles (undisputed) |
Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon[106] |
Epistle to the Romans | c. 57 CE. Written to the Romans as Paul the Apostle was about to leave Asia Minor and Greece. He was expressing his hopes to continue his work in Hispania.[107] |
First Epistle to the Corinthians | c. 56 CE. Another of the genuine Pauline letters. Paul expresses his intention to re-visit the church which he had founded in the city of Corinth c. 50–52 CE.[107] |
Second Epistle to the Corinthians | attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author named Timothy, and is addressed to the church in Corinth and Christians in the surrounding province of Achaea, in modern-day Greece.[2Cor.1:1] |
Galatians | c. 55 CE. Paul does not express any wish to revisit the church in Galatia, which he had founded, and so some scholars believe the letter dates from the end of his missionary work. The letter concerns the question of whether Gentile converts to Christianity are required to adopt full Jewish customs.[107] |
Epistle to the Philippians | c. 54–55 CE. A genuine Pauline letter, mentions "Caesar's household," leading some scholars to believe that it is written from Rome, but some of the news in it could not have come from Rome. It rather seems to date from earlier imprisonment of Paul, perhaps in Ephesus. In the epistle, Paul hopes to be released from prison.[107] |
First Epistle to the Thessalonians | c. 51 CE. One of the earliest of the genuine Pauline epistles. [107] |
Philemon | c. 54–55 CE. A genuine Pauline epistle, written from imprisonment (probably in Ephesus) that Paul expects will soon be over. [107] |
Deutero-Pauline epistles | |
Ephesians | c. 80–90 CE. The letter appears to have been written after Paul's death, by an author who uses his name. [107] |
Colossians | c. 62–70 CE. Some scholars believe Colossians dates from Paul's imprisonment in Ephesus around 55 CE, but differences in the theology suggest that it comes from much later in his career, around the time of his imprisonment in Rome. [107] |
Second Epistle to the Thessalonians | c. 51 CE or post-70 CE. If this is a genuine Pauline epistle it follows closely on 1 Thessalonians. But some of the language and theology point to a much later date, from an unknown author using Paul's name. [107] |
Pastoral epistles | |
c. 100 CE. The three Pastoral epistles – First and Second Timothy and Titus—are probably from the same author,[106] but reflect a much more developed Church organisation than that reflected in the genuine Pauline epistles.[107] Most scholars regard them as the work of someone other than Paul.[108][109] | |
Epistle to the Hebrews | |
c. 80–90 CE. The elegance of the Greek language-text and the sophistication of the theology do not fit the genuine Pauline epistles, but the mention of Timothy in the conclusion led to its being included with the Pauline group from an early date.[107] Pauline authorship is now generally rejected,[110] and the real author is unknown.[111] | |
General epistles | |
James | c. 65–85 CE. The traditional author is James the Just, "a servant of God and brother of the Lord Jesus Christ". Like Hebrews, James is not so much a letter as an exhortation; the style of the Greek language-text makes it unlikely that it was actually written by James, the brother of Jesus. Most scholars regard all the letters in this group as pseudonymous.[107] |
First Epistle of Peter | c. 75–90 CE[107] |
Second Epistle of Peter | c. 110 CE. The epistle's quotes from Jude assumes a knowledge of the Pauline letters and includes a reference to the gospel story of the Transfiguration of Christ, all signs of a comparatively late date.[107] |
Johannine epistles | 90–110 CE.[112] The letters give no clear indication of their date, but scholars tend to place them about a decade after the Gospel of John. [112] |
Jude | Uncertain date. The references to the "brother of James" and to "what the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ foretold" suggest that it was written after the apostolic letters were in circulation but before 2 Peter, which quotes it.[107] |
Apocalypse | |
Revelation | c. 95 CE. The date is suggested by clues in the visions, which point to the reign of the emperor Domitian (reigned 81–96 CE). [107] Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96, in a conspiracy by court officials.[113] The author was traditionally believed to be the same person as both John the Apostle/John the Evangelist, the traditional author of the Fourth Gospel – the tradition can be traced to Justin Martyr, writing in the early 2nd century.[114] Most biblical scholars now believe that these were separate individuals.[115][116] The name "John" suggests that the author was a Christian of Jewish descent, and although he never explicitly identifies himself as a prophet it is likely that he belonged to a group of Christian prophets and was known as such to members of the churches in Asia Minor. Since the 2nd century, the author has been identified with one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. This is commonly linked with an assumption that the same author wrote the Gospel of John. Others, however, have argued that the author could have been John the Elder of Ephesus, a view which depends on whether a tradition cited by Eusebius was referring to someone other than the apostle. The precise identity of "John" therefore remains unknown.[117] The author is disambiguated from others as John of Patmos, because the author identified himself as an exile to the island of Patmos. |
See also[]
- Bible manuscript
- Biblical canon
- Dating the Bible
References[]
Citations[]
- ^ Jump up to: a b Kelle 2005, p. 9.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Brettler 2010, pp. 161–62.
- ^ Radine 2010, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Rogerson 2003a, p. 690.
- ^ O'Brien 2002, p. 14.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Gelston 2003c, p. 715.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Rogerson 2003b, p. 154.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Campbell & O'Brien 2000, p. 2 and fn.6.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Gelston 2003a, p. 710.
- ^ Brettler 2007, p. 311.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Gelston 2003b, p. 696.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Sweeney 2010, p. 94.
- ^ Sweeney 2010, pp. 135–36.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Blenkinsopp 2007, p. 974.
- ^ Carr 2011, p. 342.
- ^ Greifenhagen 2003, p. 212.
- ^ Enns 2012, p. 5.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Nelson 2014, p. 214.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Nelson 2014, pp. 214–15.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Carroll 2003, p. 730. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCarroll2003 (help)
- ^ McKenzie 2004, p. 32.
- ^ Grabbe 2003, p. 00.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Meyers 2007, p. 325.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Rogerson 2003c, p. 8.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Nelson 2014, p. 217.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Day 1990, p. 16.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Collins 2002, p. 2.
- ^ Romer 2008, pp. 2 and fn.3.
- ^ Rogerson 2003b, pp. 153–54.
- ^ McEntire 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Bandstra 2008, pp. 19–21.
- ^ Ska 2006, p. 217.
- ^ Ska 2006, p. 218.
- ^ Eskenazi 2009, p. 86.
- ^ Ska 2006, pp. 225–27.
- ^ Person 2010, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Brettler 2010, p. 161.
- ^ Soggin 1989, p. 394.
- ^ Sweeney 1998, p. 78.
- ^ Lemche 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Davidson 1993, pp. 344–45.
- ^ Diamond 2003, p. 546.
- ^ Goldingay 2003, p. 623.
- ^ Joyce 2009, p. 16.
- ^ Blenkinsopp 1996, pp. 167–68.
- ^ Blenkinsopp 1996, p. 166.
- ^ Redditt 2003, p. 1.
- ^ Floyd 2000, p. 9.
- ^ Dell 1996, pp. 86–89.
- ^ Redditt 2003, p. 2.
- ^ Emmerson 2003, p. 676.
- ^ Nelson 2014, p. 216.
- ^ Carroll 2003, p. 690. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCarroll2003 (help)
- ^ Rogerson 2003d, p. 708.
- ^ Coogan, Brettler & Newsom 2007, p. xxiii.
- ^ Crenshaw 2010, p. 66.
- ^ Snell 1993, p. 8.
- ^ Crenshaw 2007, p. 332.
- ^ Crenshaw 2007, p. 331.
- ^ Whybray 2005, p. 181.
- ^ Exum 2005, pp. 33–37.
- ^ Bush 2018, p. 295.
- ^ Hayes 1998, p. 168.
- ^ Dobbs-Allsopp 2002, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Crenshaw 2010, pp. 144–45.
- ^ Crawford 2003, p. 329.
- ^ Collins 1999, p. 219.
- ^ Grabbe 2003, pp. 313–14.
- ^ Graham 1998, p. 210.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2003, p. 51.
- ^ Japhet 2007, p. 751.
- ^ Schmitt 2003b, p. 876.
- ^ West 2003, p. 748.
- ^ Bartlett 2003, pp. 807–08.
- ^ Bartlett 2003, pp. 831–32.
- ^ Alexander 2003, p. 866.
- ^ deSilva 2003, p. 888.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Collins 2007, p. 667.
- ^ Horbury 2007, pp. 650–53.
- ^ Rogerson 2003e, pp. 803–06.
- ^ Towner 1990, p. 544.
- ^ Schmitt 2003a, p. 799.
- ^ Thornhill 2015, p. 31.
- ^ Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 24–27.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Schröter 2010, p. 278.
- ^ Schröter 2010, p. 291.
- ^ Lane 1974, p. 466-467.
- ^ Hogeterp 2009, p. 147.
- ^ Lane 1974, p. 467.
- ^ Kimondo 2018, p. 49.
- ^ Duling 2005, p. 1057.
- ^ Duling 2010, pp. 302–03.
- ^ Duling 2010, p. 296.
- ^ Duling 2010, pp. 298–99.
- ^ France 2007, p. 18.
- ^ Horrell 2006, p. 7; cf. Knox 1948, pp. 2–15 for detailed arguments that still stand.
- ^ Aune 1987, p. 77.
- ^ Robbins 1978, pp. 215–42.
- ^ Charlesworth 2008, p. unpaginated.
- ^ Boring 2012, p. 587.
- ^ Perkins 2009, pp. 250–53.
- ^ Brown 1988, p. 10.
- ^ Lindars 1990, p. 11.
- ^ Aune 1987, p. 20.
- ^ Lincoln 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Furnish 2003, p. 1274.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Perkins 2012, pp. 19ff.
- ^ Ehrman 2004, p. 385.
- ^ Ehrman 2011, p. 107. "Before showing why most scholars consider them to be written by someone other than Paul, I should give a summary of each letter."
- ^ Black 2013, p. 1.
- ^ Fonck 1910.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Kim 2003, p. 250.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 193
- ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 81.4
- ^ Harris 1985, p. 355.
- ^ Ehrman 2004, p. 468.
- ^ Stuckenbruck 2003, p. 1535.
Bibliography[]
- Alexander, Philip S. (2003). "3 Maccabees". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Aune, David E. (1987). The New Testament in its Literary Environment. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664250188.
- Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (Fourth ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
- Bartlett, John R. (2003). "1 Maccabees". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Black, David Alan (2013). The Authorship of Hebrews: The Case for Paul. Energion Publications. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-938434-73-0.
- Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2007). "Isaiah". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195288803.
- Boring, M. Eugene (2012). An Introduction to the New Testament: History, Literature, Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664255923.
- Brettler, Mark Zvi (2007). "Introduction to the Historical Books". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195288803.
- Brettler, Marc Zvi (2010). How to Read the Bible. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0775-0.
- Brown, Raymond Edward (1988). The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary. Liturgical Press.
The Gospel and Epistles of John: a concise commentary By Raymond Edward Brown.
- Bush, Frederic W. (2018). Ruth-Esther. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0310588283.
- Campbell, Antony F.; O'Brien, Mark A. (2000). Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1451413687.
- Carr, David (2011). The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A New Reconstruction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199742608.
- Carroll, M. Daniel (2003). "Amos". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Carroll, M. Daniel (2003). "Malachi". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-1426724756.
- Collins, John J. (1999). "Daniel". In Van Der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (eds.). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802824912.
- Collins, John J. (2002). "Current Issues in the Study of Daniel". In Collins, John J.; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. Brill. ISBN 978-9004116757.
- Collins, John J. (2007) [2001]. "Ecclesiasticus, or The Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927718-6.
- Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (2007). "Editors' Introduction". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195288803.
- Crawford, Sidnie White (2003). "Esther". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Crenshaw, James L. (2007). "Job". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199277186.
- Crenshaw, James L. (2010). Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664234591.
- Davidson, Robert (1993). "Jeremiah, Book of". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199743919.
Jeremiah Book Of .
- Day, John (1990). The Psalms. Old Testament guides. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-85075-703-0.
- Dell, Katherine J (1996). "Reinventing the Wheel: The Shaping of the Book of Jonah". In Barton, John; Reimer, David James (eds.). After the Exile: Essays in Honour of Rex Mason. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-8655-45243.
- deSilva, David A. (2003). "4 Maccabees". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Diamond, A. R. Pete (2003). "Jeremiah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W. (2002). Lamentations. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 97-80664237547.
- Duling, Dennis C. (2005). "Matthew, Gospel acc. to St.". In Cross, F. L. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Duling, Dennis C. (2010). "The Gospel of Matthew". In Aune, David E. (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0825-6.
- Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-515462-7.
- Ehrman, Bart D. (2011). Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0062078636.
ehrman forged.
- Emmerson, Grace I. (2003). "Hosea". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam. Baker Books. ISBN 978-1587433153.
- Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn (2009). "From Exile and Restoration to Exile and Reconstruction". In Gary N. Knoppers; Lester L. Grabbe; Deirdre N. Fulton (eds.). Exile and Restoration Revisited: Essays on the Babylonian and Persian Periods in Memory of Peter R. Ackroyd. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-12256-8.
- Exum, J. Cheryl (2005). Song of Songs: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664221904.
- Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2003). Tobit. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110175745.
- Floyd, Michael H (2000). Minor Prophets. 2. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802844521.
- Fonck, Leopold (1910). "Epistle to the Hebrews.". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- France, R.T (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802825018.
- Furnish, Victor Paul (2003). "Letters in the New Testament". In James D. G. Dunn; John William Rogerson (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- Gelston, Anthony (2003a). "Habakkuk". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Gelston, Anthony (2003b). "Obadiah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Gelston, Anthony (2003c). "Zephaniah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Goldingay, John A. (2003). "Ezekiel". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Grabbe, Lester L. (2003). "Ezra". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Graham, M.P; McKenzie, Steven L. (1998). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524.
- Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0567391360.
- Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield.
- Hayes, John H. (1998). "Lamentations". In Steven L. McKenzie; Matt Patrick Graham (eds.). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
- Hogeterp, Albert L.A. (2009). Expectations of the End. BRILL.
- Horbury, William (2007). "The Wisdom of Solomon". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199277186.
- Horrell, D. G. (2006). An Introduction to the Study of Paul (2nd ed.). T&T Clark.
- Japhet, Sarah (2007). "1 Esdras". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199277186.
- Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10195-0.
- Joyce, Paul M. (2009). Ezekiel: A Commentary. Continuum. ISBN 978-0567483614.
- Knox, W. L. (1948). The Acts of the Apostles.
- Kim, P.J (2003). "Letters of John". In Aune, David (ed.). Westminster Dictionary of the New Testament and Early Christian Literature. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664219178.
- Kimondo, Stephen Simon (2018). The Gospel of Mark and the Roman-Jewish War of 66–70 CE: Jesus' Story as a Contrast to the Events of the War. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 9781532653049.
- Lane, William L. (1974). The Gospel of Mark. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825025.
- Lemche, Niels Peter (2008). The Old Testament Between Theology and History: A Critical Survey. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664232450.
- Lincoln, Andrew (2005). Gospel According to St John. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1441188229.
- Lindars, Barnabas (1990). John. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781850752554.
- McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0881461015.
- McKenzie, Steven L. (2004). Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries: I & II Chronicles. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-1426759802.
- Meyers, Carol (2007). "Esther". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1992-77186.
- Nelson, Richard D. (2014). Historical Roots of the Old Testament (1200–63 BCE). SBL Press. ISBN 978-1628370065.
- O'Brien, Julia M. (2002). Nahum. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1841273006.
- Perkins, Pheme (2012). Reading the New Testament: An Introduction. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0809147861.
- Perkins, Pheme (1998). "The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: Telling the Christian Story". In Barton, John (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 241–58. ISBN 978-0-521-48593-7.
- Person, Raymond F. (2010). The Deuteronomic History and the Book of Chronicles. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1589835177.
- Radine, Jason (2010). The Book of Amos in Emergent Judah. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3161501142.
- Redditt, Paul L (2003). "The Formation of the Book of the Twelve". In Redditt, Paul L; Schart, Aaron (eds.). Thematic Threads in the Book of the Twelve. ISBN 978-3110175943.
- Robbins, Vernon. (1978). "By Land and By Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages". In C. H. Talbert (ed.). Perspectives on Luke-Acts. Perspectives in Religious Studies, Special Studies Series, No. 5. Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003a). "Micah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003b). "Deuteronomy". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003c). "The History of the Tradition: Old Testament and Apocrypha". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003d). "Nahum". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003e). "Additions to Daniel". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Romer, Thomas (2008). "Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity" (PDF). The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 8, article 15: 2–12.
- Schmitt, John J. (2003a). "Baruch". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Schmitt, John J. (2003b). "2 Esdras". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Schröter, Jens (2010). "The Gospel of Mark". In David E. Aune (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament. ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). Introduction to reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575061221.
- Soggin, J. Alberto (1989). Introduction to the Old Testament. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22156-0.
- Stuckenbruck, Loren T. (2003). "Revelation". In James D. G. Dunn; John William Rogerson (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. ISBN 9780802837110.
- Sweeney, Marvin A. (2010). The Prophetic Literature. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-1426730030.
- Sweeney, Marvin A. (1998). "The Latter Prophets". In McKenzie, Steven L.; Graham, Matt Patrick (eds.). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664256524.
- Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide. Fortress Press. Translated from German (1996 edition).
- Thornhill, A. Chadwick (2015). The Chosen People: Election, Paul and Second Temple Judaism. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830899159.
- Towner, Sibley S. (1990). "Mannaseh, Prayer of". In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (eds.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737.
- West, Gerald (2003). "Judith". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Whybray, Norman (2005). Wisdom: The Collected Articles of Norman Whybray. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0754639176.
- Biblical authorship debates
- Documentary hypothesis