Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi

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Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi
Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi, late 18th century
Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi, late 18th century
Grand vizier of Iran
In office
1795 – 15 April 1801
MonarchAgha Mohammad Khan (r. 1789–1797)
Fath-Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834)
Succeeded byMirza Shafi Mazandarani
Kalantar of Shiraz
In office
1785–1795
MonarchJafar Khan (r. 1785–1789)
Lotf Ali Khan (r. 1789–1794)
Agha Mohammad Khan (r. 1789–1797)
Personal details
Born1745
Shiraz, Afsharid Iran
Died1801
Taleqan, Qajar Iran
Children5
ReligionSee below

Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi (Persian: حاجی ابراهیم شیرازی‎; 1745–1801) also known by his honorific title of E'temad-al-Dawla (Persian: اعتماد الدوله‎) was an Iranian statesman, who served as the kalantar (lord mayor) of the city of Shiraz during the late Zand era, and later as the first grand vizier of Qajar Iran.

Coming from an originally Jewish family, Ebrahim inherited his father's title as kadkhoda (warden) of the Balakaft quarter of Shiraz, He gradually became more influential and became kadkhoda-bashi (chief warden) of all the parts adjacent to Balakaft. In 1781 Ali-Morad Khan Zand captured Shiraz and in action to prevent popular riots, dismissed all kadkhodas including Hajji Ebrahim and sent them to Isfahan in addition to a fine of 40,000 Tomans. For reclaming his titles, Ebrahim helped Jafar Khan Zand in capturing Shiraz in 1785 and in returning, the new Shah appointed him as kalantar of Shiraz. After murdering of Jafar Khan, Ebrahim took side of the late Shah's son, Lotf Ali Khan by arresting Sayed Morad Khan and declaring Lotf Ali as the king. But after a dispute with Lotf Ali Khan over some issues, he started to avoiding him and connecting to Agha Mohammad Khan.

In 1791 when Lotf Ali Khan was in marching to Kerman, Ebrahim took control of Shiraz and ordered the arrest of all Zand generals, Lotfali Khan relinquished his conquering and went back; He went to the south of Fars, where he clashed with Ebrahim's forces, which resulted in defeat, then marched on Kazerun and conquered it. Ebrahim requested help from Agha Mohammad Khan who at the time was conquering Azerbaijan. Agha Mohammad Khan went to Shiraz, appointed Ebrahim as governor of the whole province. Lotf Ali Khan went for another battle for capturing Shiraz which ended in defeat and thus his flee to Tabas.

In 1794 Lotf Ali Khan was arrested and killed, Agha Mohammad Khan became the new Shah of Iran and Ebrahim became his grand vizier. In this time Ebrahim became engaged in the internal and administrative affairs and always was in presence of Agha Mohammad Khan. In 1795 he proposed a coronation ceremony to Mohammad Khan, at which he placed the crown on the king. He was present when Agha Mohammad Khan assassinated in Shusha, He quickly returned to Tehran and proclaimed Fath-Ali, the nephew of the late Shah, the new king, thus preventing a civil war. Ebrahim remained grand vizier until his murder in 1801 at the behest of Fath-Ali Shah, who was afraid of his powerful position. Most of Ebrahim's family were also subsequently killed, with the exception of one of his sons and his daughter. His descendants later formed the Qavam family, an influential family in the mid- and late Qajar period. Some of his descendants like Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi had powerful titles and were influential on the court.

Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi's role in ending the succession war of Karim Khan and transitioning the power from Zands to the Qajars, as well as enthroning four kings, all in all makes him one of the most remarkable politicians in modern Iranian history.

Early life[]

Family background[]

An old map of Shiraz in Qajar era, Bālākaft is located in the southeast

Ebrahim's family were originally from Qazvin.[1] Due to persecution of Jews, one of his ancestors immigrated to the Shiraz in the mid-13th century, where he married the daughter of Qavam al-Din Hassan Shirazi, the minister of the ruling Muzaffarid dynasty. Through this marriage, Ebrahim's family inherited some estates in Shiraz and gradually became kadkhodas (wardens).[2] Ebrahim's grandfather Asher, was a famous merchant who converted to Islam and renamed himself as Mahmoud.[2] He built a Maktab named Hashemieh and granted it to Agha Vali, Imam Jom'a of Shiraz.[3]

Mahmoud's son Mohammad Hassan was kadkhoda of the Balakaft quarter located in southeastern section of the city.[4] The quarter, owing to its remnant gardens from the Safavid era and the establishment of a trade center by Karim Khan, became one of the richest parts of Shiraz next to the Darb-e Shahzade quarter, which included royal palaces.[5] Mohammad, due to his family's Jewish background, became kadkhoda-bashi (chief warden[6]) of all Jewish parts of the city.[3] In 1747, during revolt of Qiaqali Charchi Bashi, governor of Fars, in which when Nader Shah recaptured Shiraz and Charchi Bashi killed himself, he ordered that Mirza Baqer, treasurer of Fars, Mirza Ismail, kalantar of Shiraz and some of kadkhodas get blinded but with the mediation of the merchants, he forgave Mohammad and blinded only one of his eyes.[2]

Youth and early career[]

Ebrahim was born on 1745 at Shiraz, the third son of Mohammad Hassan Shirazi.[6] He inherited his father's title as kadkhoda In the middle years of Karim Khan reign,[1] he became an ally with a kadkhoda named Mirza Mohammad Kalantar. Mirza Mohammad was a mentor and was influential on young Ebrahim's political outlook. along with him, Ebrahim witnessed the administration of Karim Khan and had consultations with the remnants of the Safavid bureaucracy such as Mirza Hossein Vafa of the Farahani family.[6] At this time Ebrahim bought some estates in the neighbouring quarters, eventually becoming kadkhoda of all of them.[1]

After Karim Khan's death and the civil war that followed between the Zand princes, Ebrahim found an opportunity to increase his influence in Shiraz and prevent the destruction of his property.[6] In 1779 when Sadeq Khan Zand invaded Shiraz and abdicated Abol-Fath Khan,[7] he blinded or killed those who were in power during Zaki Khan's reign, This purge included some important political and economic figures of Shiraz. Thus, a power vacuum emerged from the death of these figures, which gave Ebrahim a chance to further increase his authority.[8] In 1780, Sadeq Khan's army, under the command of his son Jafar Khan, clashed with Ali-Morad Khan Zand over Isfahan. Sadeq borrowed 20,000 tomans from Ebrahim to finance his army and granted him Bagh-e Jahan Nama.[a] in 1781, Jafar Khan was defeated in Isfahan and retreated to Shiraz.[10] Sadeq's forces were also defeated in several areas, such as Abadeh and Hezar, in result Ali-Morad Khan reached Shiraz in the same year and besieged the city.[11] The siege lasted until February, when the city fell and Sadeq Khan surrendered. On the orders of Ali-Morad Khan, the former king and all his sons (except Jafar, who had escaped) were blinded and later killed. Along with them, Abol-Fath Khan was also blinded.[12]

Ali-Morad Khan, who was unpopular in Shiraz, inevitably decided to move the capital to Isfahan. He fined all officials, including Ebrahim, 40,000 Tomans and forced them to move to the new capital.[1] at the time of staying in Isfahan, Ebrahim made a pilgrimage to Mecca and maintained his influence over trade centers of Shiraz.[6] in 1785, Jafar Khan collected an army and marched towards Isfahan, meanwhile Ali-Morad Khan, heavily ill, died in Murcheh Khvort.[12] when news reached Isfahan, Ebrahim led a revolt against Baqir Khan, kalantar of Isfahan and arrested him.[8] When Jafar Khan arrived in Isfahan, Ebrahim greeted him in ahead of the rest of the officials and declared him king and the rightful successor to Karim Khan.[13]

Kalantar of Shiraz[]

Jafar Khan's reign[]

a drawing of Hajji Ebrahim, probably in Jafar Khan's era.[14]

Jafar Khan knew that Ebrahim is a powerful and popular figure so he needs his help to gain Legitimacy.[15] thus in 1785 granted him the title kalantar of Shiraz.[6] After two months Jafar Khan was informed that Agha Mohammad Khan was marching towards Isfahan. Jafar quickly provided an army that withdraw in Qom and led Agha Mohammad to easily captured the city. another Army led by the Zand Khan was defeated near Kashan and in result he fled to Shiraz.[16][17] meanwhile Shiraz suffered high taxation resulted from Jafar's wars, Which provoked protests among bazaar, farmers and merchants.[15] Ebrahim for maintaining his position, connected with British merchants in Basra and made a deal with them in which they provide the economic looses in Shiraz and in return they had the rights to trade.[18] He knew that to consolidate his role as kalantar, he had to collaborate with different yet important urban bases, alongside with Bazzar, there was Lutis, Qashqai and Bakhtiari tribes and the Clergy.[6][19] this different social groups were influential over the core of the city and at this time they were against Jafar Khan's wars, for this reason Ebrahim organised a meeting and discussed with the representatives of these groups and managed to gain support of Jafar Khan from most of them.[20]

However, this did not stop the revolt of 1786 led by Mohammad Khan Zand, one of Zaki Khan's sons. Mohammad Khan planned a revolt since 1782 when his youngest brother Akbar Khan killed by Jafar Khan.[21] he gathered an army from Qashqais and marched towards Shiraz in the same time Jafar Khan was in his way to Isfahan.[22] Ebrahim sent troops under the leadership of Abdullah Khan Zand to fight Mohammad Khan, two armies fought near Shiraz, which was accompanied by the defeat of Mohammad Khan and his death.[21]

Jafar Khan's repeated defeats against Agha Mohammad Khan had led to a conspiracy against him. Jafar Khan became aware of this and suspected that the leader of the conspiracy was Sayed Morad Khan, so he imprisoned him and his two brothers in Arg of Karim Khan. On the night of January 23, 1789, Morad Khan and his supporters escaped from the Arg and attacked Delgosha Garden. Jafar Khan, who was heavily ill, was killed only after some resistance. Sayed Murad Khan, beheaded Jafar Khan, went to the streets of Shiraz and called himself the new king.[23] An uprising was staged against Morad Khan, which was suppressed. Ebrahim was loyal to Jafar Khan however did not participated in this revolt instead, wrote a letter to Lotf Ali Khan and informed him of the new situation.[21]

Coup against Sayed Morad Khan[]

Ebrahim was aware of the fact that Lotf Ali Khan was more popular than Sayed Morad Khan among not only the people but also officials and khans of Fars.[24] thus in corresponding with Lotf Ali Khan, he expressed his support for him and assured him that he would help him to claiming the throne.[25] Lotf Ali Khan went to Bushehr to form an army and asked Sheikh Nasr, the governor, for help.[24] but he could only gave him 300 man, quickly Lotf Ali Khan left for Shiraz.[26]

After the news of Lotfali Khan's departure reached Sayed Morad Khan, he sent Shah Morad Khan Zand with an army that had been preparing for seven days to confront Lotf Ali Khan.[27] But ten miles from Bushehr, two of Lotfali's supporters, Fazl Ali Khan and Naqd Ali Khan, arrested him and waited for Lotfali Khan to arrive in Dalaki. Shah Murad Khan was murdered and his army was handed over to Lotf Ali, who now was marching towards Shiraz with more troops.[26]

When Ebrahim learned of Lotf Ali Khan's condition, he plotted a coup against Sayed Morad Khan.[27] on May 8, 1789, Ebrahim and plotters, rushed into Arg and arrested Sayed Morad Khan, they also executed most of the loyals to him.[28] After learning of these events, Lotfali arrived in Shiraz overnight. He ordered that Sayed Morad Khan be blinded and killed. He then crowned king on 23 January 1789.[29]

Conflict with Lotf Ali Khan[]

an 1840 drawing by Eugène Flandin of interior view of Arg of Karim Khan.

Since the coronation, it appears that the young king and Ebrahim have disputes in issues, one of them was the trial of Mirza Mahdi.[30] Lotfali Khan punished his father's killers at the first opportunity, but through the mediation of Ebrahim, he forgave the guilt of one of the perpetrators of his father's murder, Mirza Mehdi, who was a relative of Ebrahim. It was not long before he killed Mirza Mehdi at the instigation of his mother.[1] Ebrahim considered this act as a threat for his power and began to avoiding the young king.[31] However, he kept his allegiance until May 1790 when Lotf Ali Khan left Shiraz during the siege by Agha Mohammad Khan for southern Fars and set out to conquer Kerman.[6] he appointed his younger son[6] (or according to some sources his younger brother[1]) Khosrow Khan as governor of Fars and Ebrahim as his regent.[25] Lotfali Khan did not trust Ebrahim yet could not remove him because he was a popular figure and survival of his own throne depended on him,[6] therefore he took his eldest son, Mirza Mohammad as Hostage.[32][1] From this action of the young king, Ebrahim realized that Lotf Ali Khan was against him; thus, he decided to break his bond with the Zands that had been established since Karim Khan era, but had been shaken, and turn to Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar.[1][33]

At the time Ebrahim was involved in a power struggle with Zand chiefs and generals who controlled the Arg.[6] Arg of Karim Khan was one of the strategically important areas of Shiraz, so that the rulers of this building had the main power in Shiraz.[34] Knowing this fact, Ebrahim knew that he had to conquer the Arg, in order to take control of the city by purging the Loyals to Lotf Ali Khan.[35] thus not long after Lotf Ali Khan's leaving, Ebrahim rushed into the Arg with a militia force of Lutis under command of his brother Mohammad Hossein,[6] arrested all Zand generals and then sent a message to his brothers Abdul Rahim Khan and Mohammad Ali, who commanded two regiments of Lotfali Khan's infantry, to revolt and arrest him.[1] Although Lotfali Khan survived the uprising, his troops were dispersed and he retreated to Shiraz with 200 men.[32] But on his return to Shiraz, the gates of the city did not open for him.[35] the commanders of his army separated from the young king by one of Ebrahim's actions: Ebrahim informed them that if they did not separate from Lotf Ali Khan, their families inside the city would not be safe.[36][35]

Lotfali Khan now with lesser man fled to the southern Fars.[1] At first he wanted to go to his old ally, Sheikh Nasser Khan, the governor of Bushehr, but after Sheikh Nasser refused to take refuge in him, Lotfali Khan went north.[6][37] at this time, Ebrahim, with the help of Reza Qoli Khan Kazeruni, chief of Qashqais, provided a united army of tribes near Shiraz and sent for Lotfali Khan.[6] these two arrmies clashed near Kazerun that ended with a victory for the young king, as he now conquered the city.[1] He ordered that Reza Qoli Khan and his son be blinded. It was at this time that Sultan Ali Khan Zand, one of the Zandi princes who had successfully escaped from Shiraz, arrived at Lotfali's camp with seventy men.[38] When the news of the conquest of Kazerun reached Ebrahim, knowing the fact that he might lose to Lotfali Khan, he wrote a letter to Agha Mohammad Khan, offering him a gift of 3,000 mares and requesting him, on behalf of the people of Fars, to be their new ruler.[6][39] Agha Mohammad Khan accepted this offer, appointed Ebrahim as governor of Fars and granted him the title Khan.[6][36]

Siding with Agha Mohammad Khan[]

Siege of Shiraz[]

battle between Lotf Ali Khan Zand and Agha Mohammad Khan

At the end of 1791, Lotfali Khan with three thousand men came to Shiraz from Kazerun and besieged the city. The leaders of Shiraz expected that another member of the Zand dynasty would be ousted after the removal of Lotfali Khan,[40] and since this was no longer possible, they would join Lotf Ali Khan with this siege and open the gates.[41] Aware of this, Ebrahim sought to disarm the tribal forces. He invited them to receive their monthly salary, then disarmed them and drove them out of the city. These forces, numbering 3,000, joined Lotfali Khan outside the city. But because they were unarmed, they were not very effective.[42][1] As a result, Lotf Ali Khan besieged the city. Lotfali Khan Zand's situation outside the city became more stable. He dominated almost all the suburbs of Shiraz. he tried to negotiate with Ebrahim and offered him to surrender the city and seek refuge with the Ottoman Empire or Mughal Empire with his family, but Ebrahim rejected the offer.[42]

Ebrahim wrote a letter to Agha Mohammad Khan and asked him for help. Agha Mohammad Khan, in response, sent Baba Khan from Isfahan to Shiraz with an army and ordered Mustafa Khan Davalu to camp in the gardens around Hafeziyeh.[43] At the same time, Ebrahim tried to assassinate Lotfali Khan Zand, forcing several Shiraz merchants to write a letter. In this letter, it was stated that they would open one of the gates of the city on a certain night so that the Zand forces could enter Shiraz.[44] When the promised night came, he and 300 of his companions marched towards the gate, then the Qajar forces began to attack.[45] Mustafa Khan personally rushed to Lotfali Khan and on his way killed one of the commanders, Sultan Ali Khan. Lotfali Khan quickly returned to his camp from Shiraz with the rest of his men.[41]

Shortly afterwards, the second wave of Qajar Forces, 5000 men, under command of Mohammad Khan and Reza Qoli Khan camped in near Shiraz.[1] Lotf Ali Khan once tried to ambush, them, but failed.[46] meanwhile, Mustafa Khan and his men joined the new forces and in early 1792, they clashed with Lotf Ali Khan's forces around Shiraz, which ended with the decisive victory of Zand Khan.[1][42] At this time, the situation in Shiraz was unstable. The city was in Food shortage, and Ebrahim feared that his opponents and supporters of Lotfali Khan Zand would coup against him. Ebrahim wrote a letter to Agha Mohammad Khan informing him of the situation.[47] thus Agha Mohammad Khan set out for Shiraz.[6] He settled in Abarj, a few miles from Shiraz. Lotfali Khan, who was unable to confront this large army, ambushed them at night and killed a large group of Agha Mohammad Khan's troops. It was thought that Agha Mohammad Khan had been defeated, but as dawn broke, his defeated armies gathered and soon organized. Lotfali Khan, who knew he could not resist him, had to flee.[1] Agha Mohammad Khan then entered the city on 21 July 1792. he visited the hostage family of Lotf Ali Khan and sent them to Tehran.[6]

Governor of Fars[]

In spring of 1793, Agha Mohammad Khan informed him that his army will camp near Shiraz and all Notables and Ebrahim himself should come to his camp. Ebrahim, who was not thrilled, went to greet Agha Mohammad Khan when he arrived in Shiraz with no other choice.[1] Agha Mohammad Khan rewarded Ebrahim, his family, and his followers with favors but committed more acts of violence against the inhabitants. by his orders, the Nobles of Shiraz, including Ebrahim himself, should surrender their wives and children as hostage.[6] Also to avenge Karim Khan, he ordered that his grave be exhumed and his bones buried in the stairs to his palace[1] and to preventing revolt from people of the city, he ordered for destruction of the Arg.[6] when Agha Mohammad Khan left Fars, Lotf Ali Khan, who had been in Tabas for some time, rushed to Fars for conquering Shiraz.[48] When Ebrahim became aware of this, he informed the agents of Agha Mohammad Khan. Mohammad Hussein Khan, Ebrahim's brother, was assigned to confront Lotfali Khan with the aid of Agha Mohammad Khan's army.[49] the battle happened in Darian, ended with Lotf Ali Khan's flee to Bam.[50]

In 1794, Ebrahim went to Tehran with his tribal army to join Agha Mohammad Khan and besiege Kerman.[1] In October 1794, Kerman was conquered and Lotfali Khan was arrested and, at the instigation of Ebrahim, blinded and executed at the age of 26.[51][52] Ebrahim's time as the Governor ended when in November 1794 Agha Mohammad Khan victoriously returned to Shiraz, when he appointed Baba Khan, the heir, as the governor.[6] He ordered a banquet to be held for his victory, in which "the fountains of Shiraz be filled with wine."[53]

Grand vizierate[]

Grand vizierate under Agha Mohammad Khan[]

Ebrahim and Agha Mohammad Khan

Not long after removal, Agha Mohammad appointed Ebrahim as his first and only vazir-e a'zam (grand vizier) and in imitation of the Safavid kings gave him the title of E'temad-al-Dawla.[6][1] at same year, Agha Mohammad Khan invaded Azerbijan to take control on the lands between the Aras and Kura rivers.[54] By the advice of Ebrahim, Agha Mohammad Khan divided his army into three parts when he reached Aras.[55] the part under command of Ebrahim and his brothers captured Yerevan.[56] Agha Mohammad Khan himself and his army went to Karabakh and after a long siege came to an agreement in which he wasn't allowed to enter Shushi but Karabakh became subordinate.[57] in August Ebrahim joined him for conquering Georgia.[58]

In 1795, after the victory in Krtsanisi, Agha Mohammad Khan and his company included Ebrahim, camped in Mugan plain.[59] where Nader Shah in 1736 in front of Notables of Iran, proclaimed himself King.[60] Ebrahim that saw an uncrowned King as a motive for claimants, took the opportunity to offer Agha Mohammad Khan a coronation.[61] Until that day, Agha Mohammad Khan had refused to accept the title of Shah, partly out of respect for Sultan Mohammad Mirza, a claimant member of the Safavid dynasty, who was present in Qajar Khan's camp and partly because he had not yet united all of Iran.[62] Ebrahim wrote a letter to Shrine of Sheikh Safi al-Din, that the sword of Ismail I be send to Mughan.[63] Astrologers found Nowruz of 1796 auspicious for the ceremony. on the appointed day, Agha Mohammad Khan sat on a marble throne, wearing a silk robe; He wore the diamond Daria-i-Noor - which he had taken from Lotfali Khan - and tied the sword of Ismail I on his waist.[64] then Ebrahim placed the crown of Kiani adorned with pearls on Agha Mohammad Khan, and called him the Shah of Iran.[65] After that, Agha Mohammad Khan marched to Mashhad to subdue Shahrokh Afshar, while Ebrahim went to Tehran.[66]

While Agha Mohammad Khan was in his way to Khorasan, few revolts took place throughout the realm for vengeance of Lotf Ali Khan that the most major of them was in Shiraz led by Yaqub Khan Zand.[67] apparently Yaqub Khan was the son of Abdollah Khan, the youngest son of Sadeq Khan who survived from Sayed Morad Khan.[68][69] Ebrahim personally took command of an army and went to Shiraz, as he was interested to meet Yaqub Khan.[70] the rebels defeated after a quick battle and the Zand pretender was captured.[71] After talking to him for a while, Ebrahim exiled him to the Ottoman Empire.[72] to preventing furthermore revolts from the Zands, and to organising a central administration in Tehran, Ebrahim recruited Former officials that were in Zand service.[6][73] In the same year, two French diplomats, Jean-Guillem Brugesire and Guillem Antonin Olivier, came to Tehran and met with Ebrahim.[74] Their aim was to persuade Agha Mohammad Khan to consolidate his rule over Georgia and establish a link with Europe through Mingrelia.[75] However, Ebrahim replied to them that the Iranian rule over Georgia is legitimate based on the Treaty of Serav, which was signed in 1618, during which Shah Abbas I annexed Georgia. thus Georgia is part of Iran.[76]

Rivalry with Mirza Shafi Mazandarani[]

Mirza Shafi Mazandarani, future Grand Vizier of Fath-Ali Shah.

In 1796 while the Russians were Marching to Georgia and Transcaucasia, Agha Mohammad Khan in Tehran appointed Mirza Shafi Mazandarani as kalantar of Tehran and then left with an army to face Valerian Zubov.[77][78] his appointment was mostly because of his presence In the invasion of Khorasan, in which Mirza Shafi went with Agha Mohammad Khan as an advisor and In Mashhad, by his advice, Shahrokh Afshar was tortured to expose Nader Shah's royal jewels.[79] Mirza Shafi did not trust Ebrahim since he saw him as a traitor to Lotf Ali Khan and blieved he would do the same to Agha Mohammad Khan.[80] Mirza Shafi, was also ambitious, he sought to discredit Ebrahim with Agha Mohammad Khan, so that with his removal, he would become Grand Vizier himself.[81] Thus, a rivalry arose between the two, which sought to persuade Agha Mohammad Khan to dismiss the other.[82]

Agha Mohammad Khan established a bureaucratic system that all powerful Qajar Grand Viziers would try to replace in later years, and that was that the rulers of each region would only answer to the king and ignore Grand Viziers.[83] Since Ebrahim had strengthened his influence in some areas such as Shiraz, Governor of Fars, Baba Khan, the Crown Prince, report anything to him and addressed him with respect.[84] While the situation was different in Tehran, as Mirza Shafi did not inform him of any issues including taxes and the internal situation of the city.[85] There was also the issue of dealing with peasants' cases and complaints and court rulings.[85] Ebrahim dealt with the demands and complaints of the peasants every day, and Mirza Shafi accepted the complaints because he was kalantar of Tehran.[84] To resolve this dispute, Tehran officials have decided to divide the city into two parts, leaving one part to the Grand Vizier and the other to the kalantar of Tehran.[86][87] though the suggestion wasn't accepted by neither of them.[86] Ebrahim knew that the Qajar King would not oust Mirza Shafi for the time being, so he decided to appoint a co-kalantar for him, one of his allies, Mirza Mohammad Davalu.[88] Agha Mohammad Khan immediately accepted the offer, because since the murder of his brother Jafar Qolli Khan on his orders, his relationship with his tribe had been cold and he needed their support. Empowering one of his relatives would restore the Qajars trust in him.[b][90][91] Thus, the duties of the municipality were divided between the two kalantars, the administrative affairs passed to Mirza Mohammad, and Mirza Shafi became in charge of the military-defense affairs of the capital.[92] But in reality, Mirza Mohammad's share and wages went to Ebrahim and Mirza Shafi was dissatisfied with this issue, so he continued to deal with financial and judicial affairs and ignored Mirza Mohammad.[93] The dispute between the kalantar of Tehran and the Grand Vizier was growing, but neither of them dared to complain to Agha Mohammad Khan, who was at war, so they endured the situation.[94]

Although the two did not resolve their disputes, in aftermath of the assassination of Agha Mohammad Khan, they established an alliance to save the realm from another civil war.[95]

Aftermath of Assassination of Agha Mohammad Khan[]

In 1797 Ebrahim joined Agha Mohammad Khan in marching to Shusha where the Qajar king was assassinated by his Servants.[96][97] the day after, When the officials learned of his death, Ebrahim ordered the formation of an emergency council, which included Sadiq Khan Shaqaqi, Hussein Qoli Khan, the brother of Baba Khan, and Suleiman Khan Qajar Qowanlu, the governor of Azerbaijan.[98] At this meeting, it was decided that the death of Agha Mohammad Khan should remain a secret for the time being so that the army does not disintegrate and the situation in the realm does not become chaotic.[99] thus Sadiq Khan forbade entry and exit to the camp and ordered the army commanders to be careful of all the gates of the city and to not let anyone who knew about the death of Agha Mohammad Khan get out of it.[100] Ebrahim suspected that the assassination plot had been ordered by Sadiq Khan, and now that he had taken control of the city, he might try to kill him, so he gathered a large part of Agha Mohammad Khan's disintegrated army, then went to Tehran via Ardabil.[101][6]

Rebellion of Sadiq Khan Shaqaqi[]

a Firman by Fath Ali Shah to torturing of Sadiq Khan's wife and daughter-in-law (with his stamp and signature)

As soon as Sadiq Khan was informed of Ebrahim's departure to Tehran, he set out to conquer the capital to usurping the throne.[102] Sadiq Khan stopped in Sarab for two days and handed over 2,000 of his troops to his brother, Mohammad Ali Sultan, and sent him to conquer Tabriz. He then continued his attack with twenty-three thousand soldiers, confronted Hussein Qoli Khan in Chaharbagh and defeated him.[103] Sadiq Khan thought that Tehran was a defenseless city that would be conquered quickly, but when he arrived in Tehran he realized that the city gates were closed and only the muleteers were allowed to enter.[104] Sadiq Khan wrote a letter to Mirza Shafi, the kalantar of Tehran, assuring him that he would make him his grand vizier if the city gates were opened. Mirza Shafi objected and replied that the city gates would be opened only to the Crown Prince, Baba Khan. therefore Sadiq Khan besieged the city for three days, but with lowering the supplies, he had to retreat to Qazvin.[104][105] in Qazvin, he announced that this city that was the capital of Ismail I, will be his capital too.[106] He wanted to capture Tehran, but his army was in a weak position, thus he asked his brothers Jafar Qoli Khan, the Governor of Ahar, and Mohammad Ali Sultan, who had conquered Tabriz, to run a campaign to invade the city.[107] At the same time, Ebrahim seized the opportunity and wrote a letter to the Crown Prince in Shiraz informing him of the situation, then preparing with his brothers to organize an army to retake the conquered areas. Mirza Shafi, who saw more profit in helping the grand vizier, gave him several cannons. Ebrahim did not know that Qazvin was under the control of Sadiq Khan, so he set out for Tabriz in September.[108]

In several battles, Ebrahim defeated Sadiq Khan's brothers and pushed them back to Zanjan.[109] On September 27, Baba Khan arrived in Tehran with an army of about 30,000 men. He wrote a letter to Ebrahim, asking him to join him. In October, news reached Tehran that Sadiq Khan had camped in Qazvin, and that Baba Khan's army had marched on Qazvin on October 12.[110] When Sadiq Khan realized that Baba Khan's army was moving towards Qazvin, he decided to join his brothers, so he left the city with his twenty-three thousand soldiers. On October 14, Baba Khan conquered Qazvin without bloodshed, then he pursued Sadiq Khan and fought him in Khakali, near Qazvin, and won.[110] Ebrahim defeated the rest of the rebels by the end of October in Zanjan.[111] Sadiq Khan was forgiven and became the ruler of Sarab and Mianeh, but Baba Khan kept his wife and daughter-in-law in prison and ordered their torture.[112] Sadiq Khan once again tried to revolt, but was arrested and imprisoned in a room by Ebrahim, later on Grand Vizier's order, he died from Stoning.[113]

Grand vizierate under Fath-Ali Shah[]

In his book, John Malcolm mentions meeting with Ebrahim.

When Baba Khan as Fath-Ali Shah came to the throne, he allowed Ebrahim to remain Grand Vizier.[1] under his tact and foresight, the early turbulences of the new shah's reign ended quickly.[6] the most major revolt after Sadiq Khan was, unexpectedly, Fath-Ali Sha's brother, Hussein Qoli Khan, governor of Fars.[114] in 1798 he blinded several of Shiraz officials (Ebrahim's brother, Mohammad Zaman included) then set out to conquer Tehran.[6] his army faced with Fath-Ali Shah who was accompanied by Ebrahim in Saruq.[115][6] before the battle, the grand vizier sent a courier to Hussein Qoli Khan with fales messages sewn inside the sole of one of his boots, that was addressed to Hussein Qoli's army chiefs, asking them to leave the governor and joining the Shah. Once the courtier was arrested and his messages discovered, Hussein Qoli now uncertain of his chiefs royalty, abandoned his revolt and Surrendered to Fath-Ali Shah.[6] After this incident, Fath Ali Shah's trust in Ebrahim increased; The Grand Vizier used this trust to divert the young king from state affairs and increase his influence. hence Gradually he appointed his siblings as Governors across the realm and wedded his daughter to Mirza Mohammad-Ali Khan, a respected figure in court, to gain an alliance against his rival Mirza Shafi, who now was leader of the opposition.[116][117][118] It was at this time that Ebrahim put Mirza Shafi in a house arrest and made Mirza Mohammad the sole kalantar of Tehran.[1][119]

It was during Ebrahim's time that the East India Company began to attract Iran to cooperate. When in 1799 Zaman Shah Durrani emerged as a threat to the British colonial empire in India, the East India Company sent an ambassador named Mahdi Ali Khan Bahadour to Tehran to urge Fath Ali Shah to invade Durrani empire.[120][121] There, Mehdi Ali Khan negotiated with Ebrahim, but in the end the grand vizier refused to invade Afghanistan.[6] Apparently after the years of the civil war and the conquests of Agha Mohammad Khan, Ebrahim did not wish to start another war.[122] The following year, another ambassador, John Malcolm, arrived in Iran, meeting first in Shiraz and then in Tehran. Malcolm offered the grand vizier to protect the Lahore Shiites from the Sunni Afghan tribes, but Ebrahim replied that the government's political concerns are separate from its religious beliefs. though Malcom was successful in convincing Ebrahim to sign a trade agreement with Britain.[122][1] This trade agreement in fact allowed British traders to trade in Iranian ports in the south.[1]

Death[]

Ebrahim's opponents gradually grew and secretly made a pact with Mirza Shafi and began plotting against the grand vizier. Their provocations and the growing fear of the power of Ebrahim's family led Fath Ali Shah to decide not only to oust him, but also to kill him.[1] There is a view that the British ambassadors were also involved in this conspiracy.[123] Ebrahim was also affected by the lack of a strong alliance with the Shah's mother, because in the eyes of Fath Ali Shah, Ebrahim was an obstacle to a life of pleasure and prosperity that the new Shah intended to lead, and as was later the case with the other Qajar kings; Fath Ali Shah trusted only his mother completely, and if his mother was a supporter of Ebrahim, he would also support him.[6][124] The grand vizier himself suspected that a conspiracy was being hatched against him, and in March 1801 he told John Malcolm that he was worried about his safety.[6] Malcolm himself tried to make peace between the grand vizier and the opposition and advised Ebrahim to deal with the Shah in a better temper. The grand vizier replied that neither could he change his own “plain and downright” nature nor would a lenient course assuage his opponents or decelerate the approach of his fate.[6]

Thus on 14 April 1801, Ebrahim summoned to the Shah, then was accused of plotting against him. though he denied all the charges. After a short time, he was taken to Taleghan, blinded, had his tongue cut out, and then killed.[1][6][125] thereafter, on Shah's order, his family was purged, all the adult male members were arrest and of them, Ebrahim's three brothers, Abdol-Rahim, governor of Isfahan, Mohammad Zaman, the blind kalantar of Shiraz and Mohammad Hassan the governor of Kohgiluyeh alongside with his eldest son Mirza Mohammad were executed.[6][1] Asadollah, another of his sons was also blinded,[1] Mirza Ali Reza one of his young sons, was castrated.[126] only his youngest son, Mirza Ali Reza and his daughter, survived from the purge.[126][127]

Family[]

Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi, Iranian ambassador to United Kingdom and Russian empire, and also an influential figuere in reign of Fath-Ali Shah and Mohammad Shah's events, was the grandson of Ebrahim through marriage of his daughter with Mirza Mohammad-Ali
See also: Qavam family

During his lifetime, Ebrahim had only one wife, Gulab Khanum, the daughter of Samuel Khan, the famous Jewish merchant of Shiraz. This marriage took place in 1782, when Ebrahim was still the kalantar of Shiraz.[128] They had five children, four boys and a girl:

  • Mirza Mohammad Khan, his eldest son and beglerbegi of Fars who was executed in 1801 alongside his father and uncles.[1]
  • Asadollah Khan (1783-1863), In 1793, although he was still a child, Agha Mohammad Khan took him from his father and sent him to Qazvin with the intention of taking him hostage. In the early days of Fath Ali Shah, when he was not more than 16 years old, he became the governor of Kashan for a short time. Then when his father was killed, in the subsequent purge, he was blinded. He died at the age of 83 in Shiraz.[1]
  • Mahbanu Khanum, married with Mirza Mohammad-Ali and gave birth to Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi.[129][130]
  • Ali Reza, because of his youth was spared but was castrated, became a eunuch in the royal harem.[6]
  • Ali Akbar, was also to be castrated, but because of his illness, he was expected to die so, thus he was spared. years later for appeasement, he was given the title of Qawam al-Mulk and his family lands in Fars were returned to him. His children formed the Qavam family.[6][130][1] Ali Akbar also organised the Khamseh tribal confederacy.[6]

Qavam family remained powerless for a short time after Ebrahim's death, they restored their wealth and gained alinces in court that kept them protected in case of a scheme against them. in their time, they were the architects of the modern Shiraz as they build over twenty palace and garden there inclueding the most known of them, the Qavam House.[131]

Religious beliefs[]

Qajar historians generally identified Ebrahim as a Jew.[132] although, not much information is available on whether he was a Muslim or a Jew. Some historians, such as Mahmud Mahmud, have referred to him as an anús, since in the time of Ebrahim, synagogues were opened for Jews in Shiraz and Tehran, but before that, Jews had to read the Torah in a low voice in their houses.[133][134] Another evidence is that he was a monogamist, since at that time in particular, it was customary for high-ranking officials to have several wives and several concubines, but Ebrahim had only one wife.[135]

However, Ebrahim never drank wine in public and tried to present himself as a religious person. He went to Hajj and preferred people to refer to him as "Hajji". He also had a lot of respect for the mullahs of Shiraz and always paid his zakat.[136] he was a supporter of Usuli Mujtahids and was an ally to Agha Mohammad-Ali Behbahani thus an enemy to Ni'matullāhī Sufi order.[6]

Historiography and Legacy[]

Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi by Bahram Kermanshahi, 1793

Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi is almost a controversial figure in the modern history of Iran, some historians describe him as a "traitor" to Lotfali Khan, some admire his genius.[18] Abbas Amanat introduced him as "the least understood statesmen of modern Persian history".[6] Mahmoud Mahmoud praised his tact and called him a "kingmaker".[137] Malcolm, who was on intimate terms with him, praised him as a “truly a great man, a genius, and one of the best statesmen Persia has ever had".[6] Ebrahim Al Davood, on the other hand, describes him as a politician whose with ignorance of world affairs at the time not only could not exploit conflicts between European governments in favor of Iran, but also inflicted heavy losses.[1] Hossein Ahmadi sees Ebrahim as a politician who, in a situation where the country is in crisis, is forced to turn against Lotfali Khan to end it. According to him, despite his efforts to strengthen his position alongside the Zand and Qajar dynasties, Ebrahim never gained the trust of powerful circles in a period when the bureaucracy was weak and Finally, met the same fate of Nizam al-Mulk and Rashid al-Din Hamadani, that was befell for Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam and Amir Kabir.[138]

the demonisation towards Ebrahim partly comes from a heroistic portrayal of Lotf Ali Khan as a saviour of Iran who was defeated by the kalantar's deception; besides of Smearing his reputation by the Qajar historians who had to show him in a negative light as he was a case of wrath of Fath-Ali Shah.[6][139] though Ebrahim's actions towards Lotf Ali Khan was not to replacing him with Agha Mohammad Khan, but to form a league of semi-autonomous cities and tribal regions in Fars.[6] however the plan failed as Ebrahim had to surrender Fars to the Qajars, but his wish later became true by his son Ali Akbar, who formed the Khamseh tribal confederation.[6]

Ebrahim was the main figure in ending the war of succession to the throne of Karim Khan, who with supporting Agha Mohammad Khan, stabilized the situation in Iran and with supporting Fath-Ali Shah, strengthened the power of the Qajars.[6][140] His downfall, denoted the weakness of the ministers' autonomy towards the authoritarian power of the kings, and along with the death of Qa'em-Maqam and Amir Kabir, became a regret for early intellectuals of the Iranian Enlightenment and their wish to freedom of press eventually resulted to the Constitutional revolution.[6][141][142]

Notes[]

  1. ^ a 14th century Iranian Garden[9]
  2. ^ Since the Davalu were one of two major branches of Qajar tribe, other were Qoyunlu of which Qajar royal family of Fath-Ali Shah's offspring were from.[89]

References[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Al Davood 2019.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c Amiri 1975, p. 912.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Ghadimi Ghidari 2014, p. 37.
  4. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 41.
  5. ^ Moghani 2019, p. 561.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as Amanat 1997.
  7. ^ Daftary 1990, p. 500.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 913.
  9. ^ Pir Nia 2009, p. 15.
  10. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 53.
  11. ^ Dehghani 2019, p. 96.
  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Perry 1985.
  13. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 54.
  14. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 59.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 914.
  16. ^ Hambly 1991, p. 118.
  17. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 42.
  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Karimi 2011, p. 55.
  19. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 55.
  20. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 56.
  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c Amiri 1975, p. 915.
  22. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 43.
  23. ^ Tarafdari 2017.
  24. ^ Jump up to: a b Pakravan 1969, p. 162.
  25. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 916.
  26. ^ Jump up to: a b Semnani 1994, p. 106.
  27. ^ Jump up to: a b Ahmadi 2003, p. 44.
  28. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 90.
  29. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 163.
  30. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 45.
  31. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 60.
  32. ^ Jump up to: a b Ali Beygi 1996.
  33. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 917.
  34. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 60.
  35. ^ Jump up to: a b c Karimi 2011, p. 61.
  36. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 918.
  37. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 62.
  38. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 91.
  39. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 61.
  40. ^ Hambly 1991, p. 123.
  41. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 919.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hambly 1991, p. 124.
  43. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 63.
  44. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 92.
  45. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 46.
  46. ^ Semnani 1994, p. 135.
  47. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 93.
  48. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 94.
  49. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 64.
  50. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 95.
  51. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 96.
  52. ^ Dehghani 2013, p. 62.
  53. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 210.
  54. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 216.
  55. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 69.
  56. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 100.
  57. ^ Hambly 1991, p. 127.
  58. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 213.
  59. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 221.
  60. ^ Tucker 2006.
  61. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 920.
  62. ^ Hambly 1991, p. 129.
  63. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 223.
  64. ^ Mir Saeedi 2018.
  65. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 103–105.
  66. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 255.
  67. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 921.
  68. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 127.
  69. ^ Narvand 1995, p. 311.
  70. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 225.
  71. ^ Narvand 1995, p. 313.
  72. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 124.
  73. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 226.
  74. ^ Ladani 2018, p. 218.
  75. ^ Ladani 2018, p. 218–219.
  76. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 230.
  77. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 923.
  78. ^ Inqiṭāʻ 2015, p. 267.
  79. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 267.
  80. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 133.
  81. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 134.
  82. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 232.
  83. ^ Dehnavi 2003, p. 5.
  84. ^ Jump up to: a b Dehnavi 2003, p. 6.
  85. ^ Jump up to: a b Khorsand 1998, p. 234.
  86. ^ Jump up to: a b Dehnavi 2003, p. 7.
  87. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 137.
  88. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 236.
  89. ^ Takmil Homayoun 2013, p. 115.
  90. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 138.
  91. ^ Pakravan 1969, p. 314.
  92. ^ Jalali 2004, p. 13.
  93. ^ Jalali 2004, p. 14–15.
  94. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 140.
  95. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 140, 159.
  96. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 153.
  97. ^ Inqiṭāʻ 2015, p. 273.
  98. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 240–241.
  99. ^ Jalali 2004, p. 17.
  100. ^ Inqiṭāʻ 2015, p. 274.
  101. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 155.
  102. ^ Jalali 2004, p. 18.
  103. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 115.
  104. ^ Jump up to: a b Jalali 2004, p. 19.
  105. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 116.
  106. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 16.
  107. ^ Jalali 2004, p. 20.
  108. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 159.
  109. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 250.
  110. ^ Jump up to: a b Jalali 2004, p. 21.
  111. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 162.
  112. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 17.
  113. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 251.
  114. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 21.
  115. ^ Afshar Far 2003, p. 51.
  116. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 171.
  117. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 257.
  118. ^ Toloi 1998, p. 31–33.
  119. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 258.
  120. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 925.
  121. ^ Mokhtari 2015, p. 99.
  122. ^ Jump up to: a b Mokhtari 2015, p. 100.
  123. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 180.
  124. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 926.
  125. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 260.
  126. ^ Jump up to: a b Khorsand 1998, p. 261.
  127. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 182.
  128. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 57.
  129. ^ Mir Saeedi 2015, p. 5.
  130. ^ Jump up to: a b Amiri 1975, p. 928.
  131. ^ Ghadimi Ghidari 2014, p. 45.
  132. ^ Ghadimi Ghidari 2014, p. 40.
  133. ^ Abdeli 1999, p. 29.
  134. ^ Khorsand 1998, p. 285.
  135. ^ Danesh 1969, p. 29, 31.
  136. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 914, 930.
  137. ^ Abdeli 1999, p. 30.
  138. ^ Ahmadi 2003, p. 41, 47.
  139. ^ Karimi 2011, p. 79.
  140. ^ Amiri 1975, p. 929–930.
  141. ^ Ramezan Nargesi 2007, p. 7.
  142. ^ Pozesh & Khalkhali 2016, p. 93.

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