Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles

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Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles means stopping selling and using vehicles which are powered by fossil fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, kerosene and fuel oil: it is one of the three most important parts of the general fossil fuel phase-out process, the others being the phase-out of fossil fuel power plants for electricity generation and decarbonization of industry.[1]

Many countries and cities around the world have stated they will ban the sale of passenger vehicles (primarily cars and buses) powered by fossil fuels such as petrol, liquefied petroleum gas and diesel at some time in the future.[2][3] Synonyms for the bans include phrases like "banning gas cars",[4] "banning petrol cars",[5] "the petrol and diesel car ban",[6] or simply "the diesel ban".[7] Another method of phase-out is the use of zero-emission zones in cities.

A few places have set dates for banning other types of vehicles, such as fossil fuelled ships and lorries.

Background[]

Further information: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry and Environmental aspects of the electric car

Reasons for banning further sale of fossil fuel vehicles include: reducing health risks from pollution particulates, notably diesel PM10s and other emissions, notably nitrogen oxides;[8] meeting national greenhouse gas, such as CO2, targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement; or energy independence. The intent to ban vehicles powered by fossil fuels is attractive to governments as it offers a simpler compliance target,[9] compared with a carbon tax or phase-out of fossil fuels.[10]

A BMW i3 being charged in Amsterdam. Electric cars have a world market share of around 5% in 2021.[11][12]

The automotive industry is working to introduce electric vehicles to adapt to bans[3] with varying success and it is seen by some in the industry as a possible source of money in a declining market. A 2020 study from Eindhoven University of Technology showed that the manufacturing emissions of batteries of new electric cars are much smaller than what was assumed in the 2017 IVL study[note 1] (around 75 kg CO2/kWh) and that the lifespan of lithium batteries is also much longer than previously thought (at least 12 years with a mileage of 15,000 km annually): they are cleaner than internal combustion cars powered by diesel or petrol.[13]

There is some opposition to simply moving from fossil-fuel powered cars to electric cars, as they would still require a large proportion of urban land.[14] On the other hand, there are many types of (electric) vehicles that take up little space, such as (cargo) bicycles and electric motorcycles and scooters.[15] Making cycling and walking over short distances, especially in urban areas, more attractive and feasible with measures such as removing roads and parking spaces and improving cycling infrastructure and footpaths (including pavements), provides a partial alternative to replacing all fossil-fuelled vehicles by electric vehicles.[15][16] Although there are as yet very few completely carfree cities (such as Venice), several are banning all cars in parts of the city, such as city centers.[17][18]

Methods[]

The banning of fossil-fuelled vehicles of a defined scope requires authorities to enact legislation that restricts them in a certain way. Proposed methods include:

  • A prohibition on further sales or registration of new vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date in a certain area.[19] At the date of implementation existing vehicles would remain legal to drive on public highways.[20]
  • A prohibition on the importation of new vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date into a certain area. This is planned in countries such as Denmark, Israel and Switzerland;[21][22][23] However, some countries, such as Israel, have no legislation on the subject.[24]
  • A prohibition on any use of certain vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date within a certain area. Restrictions such as these are already in place in many European cities, usually in the context of their low-emission zones (LEZs).[25]

Fuel cell (electric) vehicles (FCVs or FCEVs) also allow running on (some) non-fossil fuels (i.e., hydrogen, ethanol,[26] methanol,[27] ...).

Cities generally use the introduction of low-emission zones (LEZs) or zero-emission zones (ZEZs), sometimes with an accompanying air quality certificate sticker such as Crit'air (France), in order to restrict the use of fossil-fuelled cars in some or all of its territory.[19] These zones are growing in number, size and strictness.[19][28] Some city bans in countries such as Italy, Germany and Switzerland are only temporarily activated during particular times of the day, during winter, or when there is a smog alert (for example, in Italy in January 2020); these do not directly contribute to the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles, but they make owning and using such vehicles less attractive as their utility is restricted.[29][30][31]

Some countries have given consumers various incentives such as subsidies or tax breaks in order to stimulate the purchase of electric vehicles, while fossil-fuelled vehicles are taxed increasingly heavily.[19]

Places with planned fossil-fuel vehicle restrictions[]

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by with reliable sources.

Countries[]

Countries with proposed bans or implementing 100% sales of zero-emissions vehicles include China, Japan, Singapore, the UK, South Korea, Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Slovenia, Germany, Italy, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, Canada, the 12 U.S. states that adhered to California's Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program, Sri Lanka, Cabo Verde, and Costa Rica.[2]

In 2018, Denmark proposed an EU-wide prohibition on petrol and diesel cars, but that turned out to be contrary to EU regulations. In October 2019, Denmark made a proposal for phasing out fossil fuel vehicles on the member state level by 2030 and was supported by 10 other EU member states.[21]

In July 2021, the European Commission proposed a 100% reduction of emissions for new sales of cars and vans as of 2035.[32][33]

Map of proposed bans.
  2020s
  2030s
  2040s
  2050s
Country Start year Status Scope Details
 Austria 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Azerbaijan 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Belgium 2026[35]

2029[36]

Climate plan 2026: No further tax deductibility of Diesel, petrol employee company cars

2029: (Flanders region) Diesel, petrol

2026: Only for new cars which are provided as compensation to employees

2029: (Flanders region) New car and van sales

 Cambodia 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Canada 2035[note 2] climate plan[37][38] Emitting New light-duty vehicle sales
 Cape Verde 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Chile 2035 Chilean government Green New Deal.[39] Diesel, petrol New vehicle sales
 China 2035 Government climate plan.[40] Diesel, petrol New car sales.
 Costa Rica 2050[41][42] Proposed by Costa Rica President Carlos Alvarado as a "roadway" in 2019. Diesel, petrol New light vehicle sales
 Croatia 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Cyprus 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Denmark 2030–2035[43] Diesel, petrol New vehicle sales (2030), hybrid vehicles will continue to be allowed until 2035.[43]
 Dominican Republic 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Egypt 2040 Government plan Petrol, diesel, non-electric New car sales
 El Salvador 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Finland 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Germany 2030 Bundesrat decision[44] Emitting New car sales[44]
 Ghana 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Hong Kong 2030–2035[citation needed] Hong Kong Legislature plan, Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic Of China. Diesel, petrol New ICE-only powered car and motorcycle sales (2030), new hybrid car sales (2035).
 Iceland 2030 climate plan[45] Cars than run exclusively on Diesel, petrol New car sales, but with exceptions for regional considerations (areas where it would be difficult to ban petrol or diesel cars)[45]
 Indonesia 2050[46] Proposed by the Government as a "roadway" in 2021 Diesel, petrol All motorcycle sales (2040), all car sales (2050)
 Ireland 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Italy 2035 Ministry of ecologic transition directive [47] Emitting New private vehicle sales by 2035
New commercial vehicle sales by 2040
 Israel 2030 Emitting, non-electric New car sales, newly imported vehicles
 Japan 2035 Japanese government plan cease sales of new Diesel-, petrol-only cars Diesel and petrol hybrid cars to continue to be sold indefinitely[48]
 Kenya 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Lithuania 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Luxembourg 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Macau 2030–2035[citation needed] Macau Legislature plan, Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic Of China. Diesel, petrol New ICE-only powered car and motorcycle sales (2030), new hybrid car sales (2035).
 Mexico 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Morocco 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Netherlands 2030[49] coalition agreement[50] Diesel, petrol New passenger car sales. Commercial vehicles to continue to use petrol and diesel until 2040.
 New Zealand 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Norway 2025 tax and usage incentives[51] Diesel, petrol All new passenger cars. Commercial vehicles to continue to use petrol and diesel until 2035.
 Paraguay 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Poland 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Rwanda 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 Singapore 2030[52] February 2021 Climate plan, brought forward ten years earlier since 2020 announcement. Petrol, diesel, non-electric New vehicle sales, all vehicles to run on cleaner energy by 2040.[53]
 Slovenia 2031 emission limit of 50 g/km[54][55] Allow Diesel and petrol if emissions < 50 gr/km New car registration
 South Korea 2030–2035 Government climate plan Petrol, diesel New vehicle sales (2030), hybrid vehicles will continue to be allowed until 2035.
 Spain 2040[3] ICE New passenger car sales only. Commercial vehicles[56] and motorcycles[57] to continue to use petrol or diesel.
 Sweden 2030 coalition agreement[58] Diesel, petrol New car sales
 Taiwan 2040[59] Diesel, petrol All bus and government-owned car use (2030), all motorcycle sales (2035), all car sales (2040)[59]
 Thailand 2035[60] Diesel, petrol New car sales
 Turkey 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] and declaration on lorries and buses[61] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest
 United Kingdom 2030–2035,[62][63] 2040[64] Diesel, petrol New non-electric car sales from 2030, new hybrid car sales from 2035, new CO2 emitting lorry and bus sales from 2040
 United States 2035 US President Joe Biden's Build Back Better Act and American Jobs Plan legislation. Bans new car sales of diesel-only and gasoline-only vehicles New sales of buses and government-owned vehicles (2030), new sales of privately owned vehicles (2035). Diesel and gasoline plug-in hybrid vehicles will currently to continue to be sold indefinitely as the US government and United States Environmental Protection Agency classify them as plug-in electric vehicles.
 Uruguay 2040 Signatory of the Glasgow Declaration[34] Emitting New vehicle sales by 2040 at latest

Some politicians in some countries have made broad announcements[65][22] but have implemented no legislation[24] and therefore there is no phase-out and no binding legislation.[66] Ireland, for example, had made announcements but ultimately did not ban diesel nor petrol vehicles.[67][68]

The International Energy Agency predicted in 2021 that 70% of India's new car sales will be fossil powered in 2030,[69] despite earlier government announcements which were discarded in 2018.[70]

As of late 2021, France opposed a ban on combustion-powered cars and in particular of hybrid vehicles.[71]

Cities and territories[]

Further information: Low-emission zone and European emission standards
See also: Air pollution § Governing urban air pollution
European emission standards
(older) 1992 1996 2000 2005 2009 2014
Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6

Some cities or territories have planned or taken measures to partially or entirely phase out fossil fuel vehicles earlier than their national governments. In some cases, this is achieved through local or regional government initiatives, in other cases through legal challenges brought on by citizens or civil organisations enforcing partial phase-outs based on the right to clean air.[72]

Some cities listed have signed the Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration, committing to ban emitting vehicles by 2030,[73] but this does not necessarily have force of law in those jurisdictions. The bans typically apply to a select number of streets in the urban centre of the city where most people live, not to its entire territory. Some cities take a gradual approach to prohibit the most polluting categories of vehicles first, then the next-most polluting, all the way up to a complete ban on all fossil-fuel vehicles; some cities have not yet set a deadline for a complete ban, and/or are waiting for the national government to set such a date.[74][75][76]

In California, emissions requirements for automakers to be permitted to sell any vehicles in the state was expected to force 15% of new vehicles offered for sale between 2018 and 2025 to be zero emission. Much cleaner emissions and increased efficiency in petrol engines mean this will be met with just 8% ZEV vehicles.[77] The "Ditching Dirt Diesel" law SB 44 sponsored by Nancy Skinner and adopted on 20 September 2019 requires the California Air Resources Board (CARB) to 'create a comprehensive strategy for deploying medium- and heavy-duty vehicles' to make California meet federal ambient air quality standards, and 'establish goals and spur technology advancements for reducing GHG emissions from the medium- and heavy-duty vehicle sectors by 2030 and 2050'. It stops short of directly requiring a phase-out of all diesel vehicles by 2050 (as the original bill did), but it would be the most obvious means of achieving the reduction goals.[78][79]

In the European Union, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management and Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality form the legal basis for EU citizens' right to clean air.[80] On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled that under Directive 96/62/EC[81] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short-term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[82] The ruling of the German Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig of 5 September 2013 significantly strengthened the right of environmental associations and consumer protection organisations to sue local authorities to enforce compliance with air quality limits throughout an entire city.[80] The Administrative Court of Wiesbaden declared on 30 June 2015 that financial or economic aspects were not a valid excuse to refrain from taking measures to ensure that the limit values were observed, the Administrative Court of Düsseldorf ruled on 13 September 2016 that driving bans on certain diesel vehicles were legally possible in order to comply with the limit values as quickly as possible, and on 26 July 2017 the Administrative Court of Stuttgart ordered the state of Baden-Württemberg to consider a year-round ban on diesel-powered vehicles.[80] By mid-February 2018, citizens in the EU member states the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Spain and the United Kingdom were suing their governments for violating the limit of 40 micrograms per cubic meter of breathable air as stipulated in the Ambient Air Quality Directive.[72]

A landmark ruling by the German Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig on 27 February 2018 declared that the cities of Stuttgart and Düsseldorf were allowed to legally prohibited older, more polluting diesel vehicles from driving in zones worst affected by pollution, rejecting appeals made by German states against the bans imposed by the two cities' local courts. The case was strongly influenced by the ongoing Volkswagen emissions scandal (also known as Dieselgate), which in 2015 revealed that many Volkswagen diesel engines were deceptively tested and marketed as much cleaner than they were. The decision was predicted to set a precedent for other places in the country and in Europe.[7] Indeed, the ruling triggered a wave of dozens of local diesel restrictions, brought about by Environmental Action Germany (DUH) suing city authorities and winning legal challenges across Germany.[83] While some groups and parties such as the AfD again tried to overturn them, others such as the Greens advocated for a national phaseout of diesel cars by 2030.[84][85] On 13 December 2018, the European Court of Justice overturned a 2016 European Commission relaxation of car NOx emission limits to 168 mg/km, which the Court declared illegal. This allowed the cities of Brussels, Madrid and Paris, who had filed the complaint, to proceed with their plans to also reject Euro 6 diesel vehicles from their urban centres, based on the original 80 mg/km limit set by EU law.[86][87][note 3]

City or territory Country Ban announced Ban commences Scope Details
Aachen Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel Older diesel vehicles (2019), unless pollution reduces.[85]
Amsterdam Netherlands 2019 2030[90] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel cars (2020), non-electric buses (2022), pleasure crafts and (light) mopeds (2025), all vehicles (2030).[91]
Antwerp Belgium 2016 2017–2025[92] Diesel, lpg, petrol Euro I–II diesels and 0 petrol/lpg (2017), Euro III diesels and 1 petrol/lpg (2020), Euro IV diesels and 2 petrol/lpg (2025).[92]
Arnhem Netherlands 2013, 2018 2014–2019[93] Diesel Euro I–III diesel trucks (2014), all Euro I–III diesel vehicles (2019)*.[93][note 4]
Athens Greece 2016 2025[94] Diesel All vehicles
Auckland New Zealand 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Balearic Islands Spain 2018 2025−2035[95] Diesel, petrol All vehicles
Barcelona Spain 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Berlin Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel Euro I–V diesel vehicles (2019).[85]
Bonn Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel Older diesel vehicles (2019).[85]
Bristol United Kingdom 2019 2021[96] Diesel All private vehicles (city center from 7 am to 3 pm)
British Columbia Canada 2018 2025[97] Diesel, petrol All vehicles by 2040, 10% ZEVs by 2025
Brussels Region Belgium 2018 2030–2035[98][99] Diesel, petrol Euro 0–I diesels (2018),[100] Euro II diesels and 0–1 petrols (2019), Euro III diesels (2020),[99] Euro IV diesels (2022), Euro V diesels and Euro 2 petrol (2025), all diesels (2030), all petrol vehicles (2035)[101]
California United States 2020 2035 Net-emitting vehicles All passenger vehicles and light-duty trucks.[102][103]
Cape Town South Africa 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Cologne Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel Older diesel vehicles (2019).[85]
Copenhagen Denmark 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Darmstadt Germany 2018 2019[104] Diesel Euro I–V diesel vehicles on two streets (2019).[104]
Düsseldorf Germany 2013 2014[105] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel vehicles and Euro 0 petrol vehicles (2014).[105]
Eindhoven Netherlands 2020 2030[106] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel trucks (2007), Euro I–III diesel buses (2021), Euro IV diesel trucks (2022), all Euro IV diesel vehicles (2025), all vehicles (2030).[106]
Essen Germany 2018[85] 2030 Diesel Older diesel vehicles.[85]
Florida United States 2021 2030 Diesel, petrol All vehicles
Frankfurt Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel Euro I–V diesel vehicles and Euro 1–2 petrol vehicles (2019).[85][107]
Gelsenkirchen Germany 2018[85] 2025 Diesel Older diesel vehicles.[85]
Ghent Belgium 2016[108] 2020–2028[109] Diesel, lpg, petrol Euro I–III diesel and 1 petrol/lpg (2020)*, Euro IV–V diesel and 2–3 petrol/lpg (2025–28)*.[109][note 5]
Hainan China 2018 2030[110] Diesel, petrol All vehicles
Hamburg Germany 2018[111] 2018[111] Diesel Euro I–V diesel vehicles in one street, older diesel trucks in another street (2020).[111]
Heidelberg Germany 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Lausanne Switzerland 2021 2030[112] Thermic vehicles Zero mobility-related direct emissions
Lombardy Italy 2018 2019–2020[113] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel and Euro 1 petrol (1 April 2019), Euro IV diesel (1 October 2020).[113]
London United Kingdom 2017 2020–2030[3][114] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025 (two zero emissions zones by 2022)[114]
Los Angeles United States 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Madrid Spain 2016 2025[94] Diesel Euro I–III diesel and Euro 1–2 petrol vehicles (2018),[91] all vehicles (2025).[94]
Massachusetts United States 2020 2035[115] Diesel, petrol Will set equivalent regulations to match California's Advanced Clean Cars Program
Mainz Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel vehicles and Euro 0 petrol vehicles (2019).[85][116]
Mexico City Mexico 2016 2025[94] Diesel All vehicles
Milan Italy 2017 2030[3] Diesel All diesel vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Moscow Russia 2012, 2019[117] 2013–2021[117] Non-electric Euro I–IV bus purchases (2013), all non-electric bus purchases (2021), Euro I–III vehicles (20??), all non-electric vehicles (20??).[117]
Munich Germany 2011 2012[118] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel vehicles and Euro 0 petrol vehicles (2012).[118]
New York State United States 2021 2035[119] Non-ZEV New passenger cars and trucks and off-road vehicles and equipment
New York City United States 2020 2040[120] Non-electric vehicles All vehicles owned or operated by New York City
Nijmegen Netherlands 2018 2021[76] Diesel Euro I–III diesel cars (2021).[76]
Oregon United States 2021 2030 All vehicles Gas cars (2025), gas trucks (2030)
Oslo Norway 2019 2030[19] Emitting City centre fossil-free (2024), entire city fossil-free (2030).[19]
Oxford United Kingdom 2017 2020−2035[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles (initially during daytime hours on six streets)[121][122]
Paris France 2016 2025[94] Diesel All vehicles
Quebec Canada 2020 2035 Diesel, petrol Ban of new gas-powered vehicle sales by 2035.[123]
Quito Ecuador 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Rome Italy 2018 2024[124] Diesel All vehicles, only from historical center
Rotterdam Netherlands 2015[125] 2016[125] Diesel Euro I–III diesel trucks (2016). Other bans were dropped in 2019.[125]
Seattle United States 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Stockholm Sweden 2017 2020-2022 Diesel, petrol Euro I–IV vehicles (2020), Euro V vehicles (2022) on one street[126]
Stuttgart Germany 2018 2019–2020[127][104] Diesel Euro I–IV diesel vehicles (2019),[127] Euro V diesel vehicles (2020).[104]
The Hague Netherlands 2019 2030[75] Diesel, petrol Two-stroke mopeds (2020), Euro I–III diesel vehicles (2021), all vehicles (2030).[75]
Utrecht Netherlands 2013,[128] 2020[74] 2030[74] Diesel, petrol Pre-2001 diesel vehicles from 2015,[128] pre-2004 diesels from 2021,[74] pre-2009 (Euro I–IV) diesels from 2025,[74] all vehicles from 2030.[74]
Vancouver Canada 2017 2030[3] Diesel, petrol All vehicles, electric buses by 2025
Washington United States 2021 2030 Emitting New car sales (2025), new truck sales (2030)
Wallonia Belgium 2018 2023–2030[129] Diesel, petrol Euro 0–I (2023), Euro II (2024), Euro III (2025), Euro IV (2026), Euro V diesel vehicles (2028), Euro VI diesel vehicles (2030).[129]
Wiesbaden Germany 2018 2019[85] Diesel, petrol Euro I–III diesel vehicles and Euro 0 petrol vehicles (2019).[85][116]

Manufacturers with planned fossil-fuel vehicle phase-out roadmaps[]

In 2017, Volvo announced plans to phase out internal combustion-only vehicle production by 2019, after which all new cars manufactured by Volvo will either be fully electric or electric hybrids.[130] In 2020, the Volvo Group with other truck makers including DAF Trucks, Daimler AG, Ford, Iveco, MAN SE, and Scania AB pledged to end diesel truck sales by 2040.[131]

In 2018, Volkswagen Group's strategy chief said "the year 2026 will be the last product start on a combustion engine platform" for its core brand, Volkswagen.[132]

In 2021, General Motors announced plans to go fully electric by 2035.[133] In the same year, the CEO of Jaguar Land Rover, Thierry Bolloré also claimed it would "achieve zero tailpipe emissions by 2036" and that its Jaguar brand would be electric-only by 2025.[134] By March, Volvo Cars announced that by 2030 it "intends to only sell fully electric cars and phase out any car in its global portfolio with an internal combustion engine, including hybrids."[135] In April 2021, Honda announced that it will stop selling gas-powered vehicles by 2040.[136] In July 2021, Mercedes-Benz announced that its new vehicle platforms will be EV-only by 2025.[137] In Oct 2021, Rolls-Royce announced that it will be fully electric by 2030.[138]

Railways[]

While railway electrification is often pursued for reasons unrelated to the emissions caused by fossil fuels, there has been an increased push in the 21st century to replace diesel locomotives with alternatives such as battery electric multiple units,[139] hydrogen fuel trains like the Alstom Coradia iLint or overhead wire electrification.[140] To date the only (non-micro- or city-state) country to have electrified its entire mainline railway network, Switzerland, pursued this phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles before the term or concept existed in the modern form, in large part because importing coal for steam locomotives had proven difficult during the World Wars but Switzerland has plenty of domestic hydropower resources to power electric trains.[141][142] Israel Railways which had no electrified mainline rail services prior to 2018 when the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem railway became the first line to see electric train operation, plans to electrify most [note 6] or all of its network[143] and to phase out diesel locomotives and diesel multiple units.[144] The project was further accelerated in 2020 as the temporary shutdown of rail traffic due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel allowed faster construction[145] and ERTMS level 2 was being rolled out.[146] However, in 2019 Israel Railways ordered diesel powered rolling stock to replace the aging IC3 trains with media reports citing delays in the electrification program as the main reason.[147]

Shipping[]

Emissions will be banned from Norway’s Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord world heritage sites from 2026.[148]

Aviation[]

Norway, and possibly some other Scandinavian countries, are aiming for all domestic flights to be emission free by 2040.[149][150] A major obstacle to decarbonizing air travel is the low energy density of current and foreseeable battery technology.[151][152] Thus alternatives to electric planes such as so called sustainable aviation fuels[153][154] or e-fuels (fuels derived from electrochemical conversion of substances like water and carbon dioxide into hydrocarbons) are also proposed as a future replacement of current jet fuels.[155][156][157] In 2021 the first production scale plant for e-fuels to be used in aviation opened in northern Germany. Production capacity is planned to reach 8 barrels a day by 2022.[158] Lufthansa will be among the chief users of the synthetic fuel produced in the new facility.[159] Germany's plan to transform aviation to net zero carbon emissions relies heavily on e-fuels.[160]

Besides the need to rapidly scale up currently minuscule production capacity, the main obstacles to wider deployment of sustainable aviation fuels and e-Fuels are their much higher cost in the absence of meaningful carbon pricing in aviation.[161] Furthermore, with current CORSIA regulations for sustainable aviation fuels allowing up to 90% of emissions compared to conventional fuels, even those options are currently far from carbon neutral.[162]

Unintended side-effects[]

Second-hand vehicle dumping[]

Main article: Used car
Further information: Effects of the car on societies and Road ecology

From the European Union, there is already an export market which includes millions of used cars which are sent to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, central Asia and Africa.[163][164] According to UNECE, the global on-road vehicle fleet is to double by 2050 (from 1.2 billion to 2.5 billion,[165] see introduction), with most future car purchases taking place in developing countries. Some experts predict that the number of vehicles in developing countries will increase by 4 or 5-fold by 2050 (compared to current car use levels), and that the majority of these will be second-hand.[166][167] There are currently no global or even regional agreements that rationalise and govern the flow of second-hand vehicles.[166] Others say that new electric 2-wheelers may sell widely in developing countries as they are affordable.[168]

Besides the fact that (internal combustion engine) cars that may no longer comply to local environmental standards are exported to developing countries (where such stringent legislation on vehicle emissions does not exist), there is also the fact that fuel efficiency levels of these vehicles become worse as they age (and in some developing countries, such as Uganda, the average age of a car imported is already 16.5 years and it will likely be driven for another 20 years).[166][169] In addition, national vehicle inspection requirements vary widely depending on the country.

Potential solutions[]

  • Export prohibitions: some proposed that the European Union could implement a rule that does not allow the most polluting cars to leave the EU.[163] The European Union itself is of the opinion that it "should stop exporting its waste outside of the EU" and it will therefore "revisit the rules on waste shipments and illegal exports".[170]
  • Import prohibitions: include used vehicle bans, used vehicle import age limits, taxation and inspection tests as a precondition to vehicle registration[171]
  • Convert fossil fuel vehicles to electric: As of 2021 this is expensive so tends only to be done for classic cars.[172]
  • Mandatory recycling: the European Commission is considering plans to introduce rules on mandatory recycled content in specific product groups, for instance for packaging, vehicles, construction materials and batteries.[173] The EU announced a new Circular Economy Action Plan in March 2020,[174] and it mentioned that "the Commission will also propose to revise the rules on end-of-life vehicles with a view to promoting more circular business models.[175]
  • Scrappage programs: governments can offer a premium to owners to have their fossil fuelled vehicles voluntarily scrapped, and to buy a cleaner vehicle from that money (if they so choose). For example, the city of Ghent offers a scrapping premium of 1000 euros for diesel vehicles and 750 euros for petrol vehicles; as of December 2019, the city had allocated 1.2 million euros for this purpose to the scrapping fund.[108]

Mobility transition[]

In Germany, activists have coined the term  [de] (mobility transition, analogous to "Energiewende", energy transition) for a project of not only changing the motive power of cars (from fossil fuels to renewable power sources) but the entire mobility system to one of walkability, complete streets, public transit, electrified railways and bicycle infrastructure.

See also[]

  • Fuel substitution: central lever to be deployed in decarbonizing transport[176]
  • Alternative fuel vehicle: many of which use an internal combustion engine
  • Directive 2008/50/EC, a 2010 EU directive limiting NO2 emissions, which is the subject of many legal challenges across Europe
  • Electric vehicle conversion: removing the engine of an internal combustion-powered vehicle and replacing it with an electric motor, creating reduced manufacturing emissions (as most car parts are reused) and costs compared to manufacturing/buying a new one
  • Electrofuel: a type of synthetic fuel made from electricity (e.g., made using wind, water or solar power), many of which can be burnt in internal combustion engines
  • Environmental impact of aviation
  • Flexible-fuel vehicle and dual-fuel vehicle: have an internal combustion engine and can run on multiple fuels, sometimes even combining renewable/bio fuels and fossil fuels
  • Fossil fuel lobby
  • Fuel cell vehicle: vehicles that generate electricity using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen
  • Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle: burns hydrogen in an internal combustion engine
  • Leapfrogging
  • Smart mobility
  • Short-haul flight ban

Notes[]

  1. ^ Romare, M. & Dahllöf, L. The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries. 58 (2017). 'IVL' stands for Institutet för Vatten- och Luftvårdsforskning (Institute of Water and Air Navigation Research).
  2. ^ brought forward 5 years since 2017 announcement
  3. ^ The 80 mg/km limit is defined in Regulation (EC) No 692/2008, Table 2 of Annex XVII and Footnote 1 of Annex XI.[87][88] The European Court of Justice ruled that the European Commission illegally circumvented this limit by introducing a 'temporary conformity factor of 2,1 (...) in order to allow manufacturers to gradually adapt to the RDE [Real Driving Emissions] rules' in Regulation (EU) 2016/646, Preamble 10 and Annex II '2.1.2 Temporary conformity factors'. This meant 2.1 times 80 mg/km = 168 mg/km.[87][89]
  4. ^ *Access for banned diesel vehicles is only possible by buying a one-day exemption for 36 euros, which the owner is allowed to do up to 12 times (a year?). Old diesel cars for transporting disabled people are exempt.[93]
  5. ^ *From 2020 on, vehicles are gradually prohibited from most to least polluting; banned vehicles can only get temporary access by buying Low Emission Zone (LEZ) day ticket, which the owner is allowed to do up to 8 times a year.[109]
  6. ^ There is still no clear decision whether the old Jaffa-Jerusalem railway is to be electrified, shut down, kept as a heritage railway or converted to hydrogen fuel or battery-electric operation

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