Small modular reactor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Illustration of a light water small modular nuclear reactor (SMR)

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are nuclear fission reactors that are a fraction of the size of conventional reactors. They can be manufactured at a plant and transported to a site to be installed. Modular reactors reduce on-site construction, increase containment efficiency, and enhance safety. The greater safety comes via the use of passive safety features that operate without human intervention. SMRs also reduce staffing versus conventional nuclear reactors.[1][2] SMRs are claimed to cross financial and safety barriers that inhibit the construction of conventional reactors.[2][3]

SMR designs range from scaled down versions of existing designs to generation IV designs. Both thermal-neutron reactors and fast-neutron reactors have been proposed, along with molten salt and gas cooled reactor models.[4]

The main hindrance to commercial use is licensing, since current regulatory regimes are adapted to conventional designs. SMRs differ in terms of staffing, security and deployment time. One concern with SMRs is preventing nuclear proliferation.[5][6][7][8] Licensing time, cost and risk are critical success factors. US government studies that evaluated SMR-associated risks have slowed licensing.[9][10][11]

Advantages[]

Licensing[]

Once the first unit of a given design is licensed, licensing subsequent units should be drastically simpler, given that all units operate in the same way.

Scalability[]

Another advantage is scalability. A given power station can begin with a single module and expand by adding modules as demand grows. This reduces startup costs associated with conventional designs.[12]

SMRs have a load-following design so that when electricity demands are low they can produce less electricity.

Siting/infrastructure[]

SMR reactors have a much smaller footprint, e.g., the 440 MWe 3-loop Rolls-Royce SMR reactor takes 40,000 m2 (430,000 sq ft), 10% of that needed for a traditional plant.[13] Among SMRs it is relatively large and involves more on-site construction. The firm is targeting a 500-day construction time.[14]

Electricity needs in remote locations are usually small and variable, making them suitable for a smaller plant.[15] The smaller size may also reduce the need for a grid to distribute their output.

Safety[]

Containment is more efficient, and proliferation concerns are much less.[16] For example, a pressure release valve may have a spring that can respond to increasing pressure to increase coolant flow. Inherent safety features require no moving parts to work, depending only on physical laws.[17] Another example is a plug at the bottom of a reactor that melts away when temperatures are too high, allowing the reactor fuel to drain out of the reactor and lose critical mass.

Manufacturing[]

The main SMR advantage is the lower costs stemming from central manufacturing and standardized designs.[18] However, SMR module transport needs further studies.[19]

Proliferation[]

Many SMRs are designed to use unconventional fuels that allow for higher burnup and longer fuel cycles.[3] Longer refueling intervals can decrease proliferation risks and lower chances of radiation escaping containment. For reactors in remote areas, accessibility can be troublesome, so longer fuel life can be helpful.

Types[]

A nuclear fission chain is required to generate nuclear power.

SMRs come in multiple designs. Some are simplified versions of current reactors, others involve entirely new technologies.[20] All proposed SMRs use nuclear fission. SMR designs include thermal-neutron reactors and fast-neutron reactors.

Thermal-neutron reactors[]

Thermal-neutron reactors rely on a moderator to slow neutrons and generally use 235
U as fissile material. Most conventional operating reactors are of this type.

Fast reactors[]

Fast reactors don't use moderators. Instead they rely on the fuel to absorb higher speed neutrons. This usually means changing the fuel arrangement within the core, or using different fuels. E.g., 239
Pu is more likely to absorb a high-speed neutron than 235
U.

Fast reactors can be breeder reactors. These reactors release enough neutrons to transmute non-fissionable elements into fissionable ones. A common use for a breeder reactor is to surround the core in a "blanket" of 238
U, the most easily found isotope. Once the 238
U undergoes a neutron absorption reaction, it becomes 239
Pu, which can be removed from the reactor during refueling, and subsequently used as fuel.[21]

Technologies[]

Cooling[]

Conventional reactors use water as a coolant. SMRs may use water, liquid metal, gas and molten salt as coolants.[22][23]

Thermal/electrical generation[]

Some gas-cooled reactor designs drive a gas-powered turbine, rather than boil water. Thermal energy can be used directly, without conversion. Heat can be used in hydrogen production and other commercial operations,[22] such as desalination and the production of petroleum products (extracting oil from tar sands, creating synthetic oil from coal, etc.).[24]

Staffing[]

Reactors such as the Toshiba 4S are designed to run with little supervision.[1]

Load following[]

Nuclear plants typically cover the base load of electricity demand.[25] SMR designs can provide base load power or can adjust their output based on demand. Another approach is to adopt cogeneration, maintaining consistent output, while diverting otherwise unneeded power to an auxiliary use.

District heating, desalination and hydrogen production have been proposed as cogeneration options.[25] Overnight desalination requires sufficient storage to enable water to be delivered at times other than when it is produced.[26]

Waste[]

Many SMR designs are fast reactors that have higher fuel burnup, reducing the amount of waste. At higher neutron energy more fission products can usually be tolerated. Breeder reactors "burn" 235
U, but convert fertile materials such as 238
U into usable fuels.[21]

Some reactors are designed to run on the thorium fuel cycle, which offers significantly reduced long-term waste radiotoxicity compared to the uranium cycle.[27]

The traveling wave reactor immediately uses fuel that it breeds without requiring the fuel's removal and cleaning.[28]

Safety[]

Coolant systems can use natural circulation – convection – to eliminate pumps that could break down. Convection can keep removing decay heat after reactor shutdown.

Negative temperature coefficients in the moderators and the fuels keep the fission reactions under control, causing the reaction to slow as temperature increases.[29]

Some SMRs may need an active cooling system to back up the passive system, increasing cost.[30] Additionally, SMR designs have less need for containment structures.[10]

Some SMR designs bury the reactor and spent-fuel storage pools underground.

Smaller reactors would be easier to upgrade.[31]

Economics[]

A key driver of interest in SMRs are the claimed economies of scale, compared to larger reactors, that stem from the ability to fabricate them in a manufacturing plant/factory. Some studies instead find the capital cost of SMRs to be equivalent to larger reactors.[32] Substantial capital is needed to construct the factory. Amortizing that cost requires significant volume, estimated to be 40–70 units.[33]

Construction costs are claimed to be less than that for a conventional nuclear plant.[34][35] However, modularisation and modularity influence the economic competitiveness of SMRs.[35] Financial and economic issues can hinder SMR construction.[11]

Staffing costs per unit output increase as reactor size decreases, due to fixed costs. SMR staff costs per unit output can be as much as 190% higher than the fixed operating cost of large reactors.[36]

In 2017 an Energy Innovation Reform Project study of eight companies looked at reactor designs with capacity between 47.5 MWe and 1,648 MWe.[37] The study reported average capital cost of $3,782/kW, average operating cost total of $21/MWh and levelized cost of electricity of $60/MWh.

Energy Impact Center founder Bret Kugelmass claimed that thousands of SMRs could be built in parallel, "thus reducing costs associated with long borrowing times for prolonged construction schedules and reducing risk premiums currently linked to large projects."[38] GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Executive Vice President Jon Ball agreed, saying the modular elements of SMRs would also help reduce costs associated with extended construction times.[38]

Licensing[]

A major barrier to SMR adoption is the licensing process. It was developed for conventional, custom-built reactors, preventing the simple deployment of identical units at different sites.[39] In particular the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission process for licensing has focused mainly on conventional reactors. Design and safety specifications, staffing requirements and licensing fees have all been geared toward reactors with electrical output of more than 700MWe.[40]

SMRs caused a reevalution of the licensing process. One workshop in October 2009 and another in June 2010 considered the topic, followed by a Congressional hearing in May 2010. Multiple US agencies are working to define SMR licensing.[9] However, some argue that weakening safety regulations to push the development of SMRs may offset their enhanced safety characteristics.[41][10]

The U.S. Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program was expected to help license and build two prototype SMRs during the 2020s, with up to $4 billion of government funding.[42]

Proliferation[]

Nuclear proliferation, or the use of nuclear materials to create weapons, is a concern for small modular reactors. As SMRs have lower generation capacity and are physically smaller, they are intended to be deployed in many more locations than conventional plants.[7] SMRs are expected to substantially reduce staffing levels. The combination creates physical protection and security concerns.[5][6]

Many SMRs are designed to address these concerns. Fuel can be low-enriched uranium, with less than 20% fissile 235
U. This low quantity, sub-weapons-grade uranium is less desirable for weapons production. Once the fuel has been irradiated, the mixture of fission products and fissile materials is highly radioactive and requires special handling, preventing casual theft.

Some SMR designs are designed for one-time fueling. This improves proliferation resistance by eliminating on-site nuclear fuel handling and means that the fuel can be sealed within the reactor. However, this design requires large amounts of fuel, which could make it a more attractive target. A 200 MWe 30-year core life light water SMR could contain about 2.5 tonnes of plutonium at end of life.[6]

Light-water reactors designed to run on thorium offer increased proliferation resistance compared to the conventional uranium cycle, though molten salt reactors have a substantial risk.[43][44]

SMR factories reduce access, because the reactor is fueled before transport, instead of on the ultimate site.[citation needed]

Reactor designs[]

Main article: List of small modular reactor designs

Numerous reactor designs have been proposed. Notable SMR designs:

  Design   Licensing   Under construction   Operational   Cancelled   Retired

List of small nuclear reactor designs[45][ view/edit ]
Name Gross power (MWe) Type Producer Country Status
4S 10–50 SFR Toshiba Japan Detailed design
6–9 PWR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Detailed design
ACP100 125 PWR China National Nuclear Corporation China Under Construction [46]
TMSR-LF1 10MW[47] MSR China National Nuclear Corporation China Under Construction
100 SFR Canada Design: Vendor design review.[48] One unit approved for construction at Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in December 2019.[49]
MMR 5 MSR Canada Licensing stage [50]
[51] 6 LFR OKB Gidropress Russia Conceptual design
B&W mPower 195 PWR Babcock & Wilcox United States Cancelled in March 2017
BANDI-60 60 PWR (floating) KEPCO South Korea Detailed design[52]
BREST-OD-300[53] 300 LFR Atomenergoprom Russia Under construction[54]
BWRX-300[55] 300 ABWR GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy United States Licensing stage
CAREM 27–30 PWR CNEA Argentina Under construction
Copenhagen Atomics Waste Burner 50 MSR Copenhagen Atomics Denmark Conceptual design
CMSR 100 MSR Seaborg Technologies Denmark Conceptual design
EGP-6 11 RBMK IPPE & Teploelektroproekt Design Russia Operating
(not actively marketed due to legacy design, will be taken out of operation permanently in 2021)
ELENA[56][57] 0.068 PWR Kurchatov Institute Russia Conceptual design
[58] 8.4 MSR cs:Centrum výzkumu Řež[59] Czechia Conceptual design
Flexblue 160 PWR Areva TA / DCNS group France Conceptual design
Fuji MSR 200 MSR International Thorium Molten Salt Forum (ITMSF) Japan Conceptual design
GT-MHR 285 GTMHR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Conceptual design completed
G4M 25 LFR Gen4 Energy United States Conceptual design
GT-MHR 50 GTMHR General Atomics, United States,France Conceptual design
IMSR400 185–192 MSR Terrestrial Energy[60] Canada Conceptual design
TMSR-500 500 MSR [61] Indonesia Conceptual design
IRIS 335 PWR Westinghouse-led international Design (Basic)
KLT-40S 35 PWR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Operating[62]
25–87 HTGR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Conceptual design
[a] 205.5x4 HTGR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Conceptual design
MRX 30–100 PWR JAERI Japan Conceptual design
100–300 PWR Areva TA France Conceptual design
NuScale 45 PWR NuScale Power LLC United States Licensing stage
300–400 PWR consortium France Conceptual design, construction anticipated in 2030[63]
PBMR-400 165 HTGR Eskom South Africa Cancelled. Postponed indefinitely[9]
RITM-200 50 PWR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Operational since October 2019[64]
Rolls-Royce SMR 440 PWR Rolls-Royce United Kingdom Design stage
[65][66] 55 LFR LeadCold Sweden Design stage
100 PWR KAERI South Korea Licensed
SMR-160 160 PWR Holtec International United States Conceptual design
[67][68] 100 LFR OKB Gidropress Russia Detailed design
SSR-W 300–1000 MSR Moltex Energy[69] United Kingdom Conceptual design
S-PRISM 311 FBR GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy United States/Japan Detailed design
TerraPower 10 TWR Intellectual Ventures United States Conceptual design
4 HTGR U-Battery consortium[b] United Kingdom Design and development work[70][71]
VBER-300 325 PWR OKBM Afrikantov Russia Licensing stage
250 BWR Atomstroyexport Russia Detailed design
300 BWR OKB Gidropress Russia Conceptual design
Westinghouse SMR 225 PWR Westinghouse Electric Company United States Cancelled. Preliminary design completed.[72]
80 HTGR X-energy[73] United States Conceptual design development
Updated as of 2014. Some reactors are not included in IAEA Report.[45] Not all IAEA reactors are listed there are added yet and some are added (anno 2021) that were not yet listed in the now dated IAEA report.
  1. ^ Multi-unit complex based on the GT-MHR reactor design
  2. ^ Urenco Group in collaboration with Jacobs and Kinectrics

Proposed sites[]

Canada[]

In 2018, the Canadian province of New Brunswick announced it would invest $10 million for a demonstration project at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station.[74] It was later announced that SMR proponents Advanced Reactor Concepts[75] and Moltex[76] would open offices there.

On 1 December 2019, the Premiers of Ontario, New Brunswick and Saskatchewan signed a memorandum of understanding [77] "committing to collaborate on the development and deployment of innovative, versatile and scalable nuclear reactors, known as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)."[78] They were joined by Alberta in August 2020.[79]

China[]

In July 2019 China National Nuclear Corporation announced it would build a demonstration ACP100 SMR on the north-west side of the existing Changjiang Nuclear Power Plant by the end of the year.[80]

On 7 June 2021, the construction of a demonstration ACP100 small modular reactor (SMR) at Changjiang in Hainan province was approved by China's National Development and Reform Commission.[81]

In July 2021 China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) started construction of the first project using its homegrown “Linglong One” SMR.[82]

Poland[]

Polish chemical company Synthos declared plans to deploy a Hitachi BWRX-300 reactor (300 MW) in Poland by 2030.[83] A feasibility study was completed in December 2020 and licensing started with the Polish National Atomic Energy Agency.[84]

United Kingdom[]

In 2016 it was reported that the UK Government was assessing Welsh SMF sites - including the former Trawsfynydd nuclear power station - and on the site of former nuclear or coal-fired power stations in Northern England. Existing nuclear sites including Bradwell, Hartlepool, Heysham, Oldbury, Sizewell, Sellafield and Wylfa were stated to be possibilities.[85] The target cost for a 440 MWe Rolls-Royce SMR unit is £1.8 billion for the fifth unit built.[86] In 2020 it was reported that Rolls-Royce had plans to construct up to 16 SMRs in the UK. In 2019, the company received £18 million to begin designing the modular system, and the BBC claims that the government will provide an additional £200 million for the project as a part of its green economic recovery plan.[87]

United States[]

In December 2019 the Tennessee Valley Authority was authorized to receive an Early Site Permit (ESP) by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for siting an SMR at its Clinch River site in Tennessee.[88] This ESP is valid for 20 years, and addresses site safety, environmental protection and emergency preparedness. This ESP is applicable for any light-water reactor SMR design under development in the United States.[89]

The Utah Associated Municipal Power Systems (UAMPS) announced a partnership with Energy Northwest to explore siting a NuScale Power reactor in Idaho, possibly on the Department of Energy's Idaho National Laboratory.[90]

The Galena Nuclear Power Plant in Galena, Alaska was a proposed micro nuclear reactor installation. It was a potential deployment for the Toshiba 4S reactor.

References[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b "The Galena Project Technical Publications", pg. 22, Burns & Roe
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b "Small Modular Reactors: Nuclear Energy Market Potential for Near-term Deployment" (PDF). OECD-NEA.org. 2016.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Furfari, Samuele (31 October 2019). "Squaring the energy circle with SMRs". Sustainability Times. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  4. ^ Berniolles, Jean-Marie (29 November 2019). "De-mystifying small modular reactors". Sustainability Times. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Greneche, Dominique (18 June 2010), Proliferation issues related to the deployment of Small & Medium Size reactors (SMRs) (presentation), AREVA, retrieved 23 March 2017
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b c Glaser, Alexander (5 November 2014), Small Modular Reactors - Technology and Deployment Choices (presentation), NRC, retrieved 23 March 2017
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Trakimavičius, Lukas. "Is Small Really Beautiful?The Future Role of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) In The Military" (PDF). NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  8. ^ "Licensing Small Modular Reactors: An Overview of Regulatory and Policy Issues" (PDF). Hoover Institution. 2015.
  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jones, Richard M. (18 June 2010). Positive Response to Administration's Nuclear Energy Strategy. American Institute of Physics (Report). Cite error: The named reference "auto" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Small isn't always beautiful" (PDF). Union of Concerned Scientists. 2013. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Mignacca, Benito; Locatelli, Giorgio; Sainati, Tristano (20 June 2020). "Deeds not words: Barriers and remedies for Small Modular nuclear Reactors". Energy. 206: 118137. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2020.118137.
  12. ^ Mignacca, B.; Locatelli, G. (1 February 2020). "Economics and finance of Small Modular Reactors: A systematic review and research agenda". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 118: 109519. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109519. ISSN 1364-0321.
  13. ^ UK SMR (PDF) (Report). Rolls-Royce. 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  14. ^ UK SMR (PDF) (Report). Rolls-Royce. 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  15. ^ Report to Congress 2001, p. 8
  16. ^ "Small Modular Reactors", Department of Energy – Office of Nuclear Energy
  17. ^ "Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", World Nuclear Association
  18. ^ Trakimavičius, Lukas. "Is Small Really Beautiful?The Future Role of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) In The Military" (PDF). NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  19. ^ Mignacca, Benito; Hasan Alawneh, Ahmad; Locatelli, Giorgio (27 June 2019). Transportation of small modular reactor modules: What do the experts say?. 27th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering.
  20. ^ INEA, NEA, IEA. "Innovative Nuclear Reactor Development: Opportunities for International Co-operation", OECD Nuclear Energy Agency
  21. ^ Jump up to: a b Carlson, J. "Fast Neutron Reactors", World Nuclear Association
  22. ^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, P.D. "Nuclear Power Reactors", World Nuclear Association
  23. ^ brian wang (13 October 2011). "Flibe Energy Liquid Flouride [sic] Thorium Reactor Company". Nextbigfuture.com. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  24. ^ "Nuclear Process Heat for Industry", World Nuclear Association
  25. ^ Jump up to: a b Locatelli, Giorgio; Fiordaliso, Andrea; Boarin, Sara; Ricotti, Marco E. (1 May 2017). "Cogeneration: An option to facilitate load following in Small Modular Reactors" (PDF). Progress in Nuclear Energy. 97: 153–161. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2016.12.012.
  26. ^ Locatelli, Giorgio; Boarin, Sara; Pellegrino, Francesco; Ricotti, Marco E. (1 February 2015). "Load following with Small Modular Reactors (SMR): A real options analysis" (PDF). Energy. 80: 41–54. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.040. hdl:11311/881391.
  27. ^ Section 5.3, WASH 1097 "The Use of Thorium in Nuclear Power Reactors", available as a PDF from Liquid-Halide Reactor Documents database: http://www.energyfromthorium.com/pdf/
  28. ^ Wald, M. "TR10: Traveling Wave Reactor", Technology Review
  29. ^ DOE-HDBK-1019 1993, pp. 23–29
  30. ^ "Small Modular Reactors: Safety, Security and Cost Concerns (2013)". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  31. ^ [Moniz, Ernest. "Why We Still Need Nuclear Power: Making Clean Energy Safe and Affordable." Foreign Affairs 90, no. 6 (November 2011): 83-94.]
  32. ^ Carelli, Mario; Petrovic, B; Mycoff, C; Trucco, Paolo; Ricotti, M.E.; Locatelli, Giorgio (1 January 2007). "Economic comparison of different size nuclear reactors". Simposio LAS/ANS 2007 – via ResearchGate.
  33. ^ Harrabin, Roger (23 March 2016). "The nuclear industry: a small revolution". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
  34. ^ Black, R. "Bringing Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) to Domestic Markets: DOE Presentation to Foundation for Nuclear Studies", Nuclear Foundation
  35. ^ Jump up to: a b Mignacca, Benito; Locatelli, Giorgio (1 November 2019). "Economics and finance of Small Modular Reactors: A systematic review and research agenda". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 118: 109519. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109519.
  36. ^ Small modular reactors - Can building nuclear power become more cost-effective? (PDF). Ernst & Young (Report). gov.uk. March 2016. p. 38. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  37. ^ EIRP (1 July 2017). "What Will Advanced Nuclear Power Plants Cost?". Energy Innovation Reform Project. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  38. ^ Jump up to: a b "Industry heads warn nuclear costs must be slashed | Reuters Events | Nuclear". www.reutersevents.com. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  39. ^ Sainati, Tristano; Locatelli, Giorgio; Brookes, Naomi (15 March 2015). "Small Modular Reactors: Licensing constraints and the way forward" (PDF). Energy. 82: 1092–1095. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.079.
  40. ^ Rysavy, C., Rhyne, S., Shaw, R. "Small Modular Reactors", ABA Section of Environment, Energy and Resources – Special Committee on Nuclear Power
  41. ^ "Advanced Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)". Energy.gov. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  42. ^ Cho, Adrian (20 May 2020). "U.S. Department of Energy rushes to build advanced new nuclear reactors". Science. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
  43. ^ Kang, J.; Von Hippel, F. N. (2001). "U‐232 and the proliferation‐resistance of U‐233 in spent fuel". Science & Global Security. 9 (1): 1–32. Bibcode:2001S&GS....9....1K. doi:10.1080/08929880108426485. S2CID 8033110. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  44. ^ Ashley, Stephen (2012). "Thorium fuel has risks". Nature. 492 (7427): 31–33. Bibcode:2012Natur.492...31A. doi:10.1038/492031a. PMID 23222590. S2CID 4414368.
  45. ^ Jump up to: a b "IAEA Report: UPDATED STATUS ON GLOBAL SMR_DEVELOPMENT as of September 2014" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2014.
  46. ^ "China launches first commercial onshore small reactor project". 14 July 2021. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  47. ^ "Thorium Molten Salt Reactor China".
  48. ^ "ARC-100 passes Canadian pre-licensing milestone". World Nuclear News. 2 October 2019. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  49. ^ "N.B. makes step forward on second nuclear reactor at Point Lepreau". Atlantic. 9 December 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
  50. ^ "Formal licence review begins for Canadian SMR". World Nuclear News. 20 May 2021. Archived from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  51. ^ "The ANGSTREM Project: Present Status and Development Activities" (PDF). Retrieved 22 June 2017.
  52. ^ "Kepco E&C teams up with shipbuilder for floating reactors". World Nuclear News. 6 October 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  53. ^ "Error" (PDF).
  54. ^ "Specialists of JSC concern TITAN-2 continue to work at the site of the proryv project in Seversk" (in Russian).
  55. ^ "BWRX-300".
  56. ^ (PDF) http://www.iaea.org/nuclearenergy/nuclearpower/Downloadable/SMR/files/4_UPDATED_STATUS_ON_GLOBAL_SMR_DEVELOPMENT__as_of_September_2014.pdf. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  57. ^ IAEA SMR Booklet 2014 http://www.iaea.org/nuclearenergy/nuclearpower/Downloadable/SMR/files/IAEA_SMR_Booklet_2014.pdf IAEA SMR Booklet 2014 Check |url= value (help). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  58. ^ Medlov FHR v1
  59. ^ "První milník: koncepční návrh malého modulárního reaktoru byl představen veřejnosti | Centrum výzkumu Řež". cvrez.cz.
  60. ^ "Terrestrial Energy | Integral Molten Salt Reactor Technology". Terrestrial Energy. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
  61. ^ "ThorCon | Thorium Molten Salt Reactor". ThorCon Power. Retrieved 7 January 2020.
  62. ^ "Russia connects floating plant to grid". World Nuclear News. 19 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  63. ^ "French-developed SMR design unveiled". World Nuclear News. 17 September 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  64. ^ "SMR in the Making". Retrieved 5 May 2020.
  65. ^ "SMR Book 2020" (PDF).
  66. ^ "Home". www.leadcold.com.
  67. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  68. ^ "SVBR AKME Antysheva" (PDF).
  69. ^ "Moltex Energy | Safer Cheaper Cleaner Nuclear | Stable Salt Reactors | SSR". moltexenergy.com. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
  70. ^ "UK companies call on government to support nuclear in COVID recovery". World Nuclear News. 13 October 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  71. ^ Onstad, Eric (8 February 2013). "Nuclear fuel firm champions "plug-and-play" micro reactors". Reuters. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
  72. ^ Litvak, Anya (2 February 2014). "Westinghouse backs off small nuclear plants". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  73. ^ "Energy Department Announces New Investments in Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors..." US Department of Energy. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
  74. ^ Government of New Brunswick, Canada (26 June 2018). "$10 million committed for nuclear research cluster". www2.gnb.ca.
  75. ^ Government of New Brunswick, Canada (9 July 2018). "Partner announced in nuclear research cluster". www2.gnb.ca.
  76. ^ Government of New Brunswick, Canada (13 July 2018). "Moltex to partner in nuclear research and innovation cluster". www2.gnb.ca.
  77. ^ "COLLABORATION MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING" (PDF). Government of Ontario. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  78. ^ "Premier Ford, Premier Higgs and Premier Moe Sign Agreement on the Development of Small Modular Reactors". ontario.ca. Government of Ontario. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  79. ^ "Opinion: Small nuclear reactors can play big role in clean energy transition". calgaryherald.
  80. ^ "CNNC launches demonstration SMR project". World Nuclear News. 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  81. ^ "China approves construction of demonstration SMR : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News". world-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  82. ^ Reuters Staff (13 July 2021). "China launches first commercial onshore small reactor project". Reuters. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  83. ^ "Billionaire Pole to build nuclear reactor". www.thefirstnews.com. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  84. ^ "Feasibility study completed on SMRs for Poland - Nuclear Engineering International". www.neimagazine.com. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  85. ^ McCann, Kate (2 April 2016). "Mini nuclear power stations in UK towns move one step closer". The Sunday Telegraph. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
  86. ^ "UK confirms funding for Rolls-Royce SMR". World Nuclear News. 7 November 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  87. ^ "Rolls-Royce plans 16 mini-nuclear plants for UK". BBC News. 11 November 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  88. ^ U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (17 December 2019). "NRC to Issue Early Site Permit to Tennessee Valley Authority for Clinch River Site" (PDF). nrc.gov. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
  89. ^ "TVA - Small Modular Reactors". www.tva.gov. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
  90. ^ "Carbon Free". www.uamps.com. Retrieved 8 April 2016.

Further reading[]

External links[]

Retrieved from ""