Tagalog people

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with the Tagalag people of Australia.
Tagalog people
Katagalugan / Mga Tagalog / Lahing Tagalog
Naturales 5.png
A Maginoo (noble class) couple, both wearing blue-coloured clothing articles (blue being the distinctive colour of their class).
Total population
c. 30 million (in the Philippines)[1]
Regions with significant populations
 Philippines
(Metro Manila, Calabarzon, Central Luzon, Mimaropa)
Canada Canada
Palau Palau
United States United States
Guam Guam
Federated States of Micronesia Federated States of Micronesia
Northern Mariana Islands Northern Mariana Islands
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
Languages
Tagalog (Filipino)
English (auxiliary)
Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Christianity
Muslim, Buddhist, Anitism (Tagalog religion) minorities
Related ethnic groups
Other Filipino ethnic groups, other Austronesian people

The Tagalog people (Filipino: Mga Tagalog) are the second largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines after the Visayan people[citation needed], numbering at around 30 million. An Austronesian people, the Tagalog have a well developed society due to their cultural heartland, Manila, being the capital city of the Philippines. They are native to the Metro Manila and Calabarzon regions of southern Luzon, as well as being the largest group in the provinces of Bulacan, Bataan, Zambales, Nueva Ecija and Aurora in Central Luzon and in the islands of Marinduque and Mindoro in Mimaropa.

Etymology[]

The commonly perpetuated origin for the endonym "Tagalog" is the term tagá-ilog, which means "people from [along] the river". However, this explanation is a mistranslation of the term "Tagalog". Instead, the term is derived from tagá-árog, which means "people from the ford" (the prefix tagá- meaning "coming from" or "native of").[2][3] Kapampangan legends talk of a war between the taga-ilug led by Dayang Makiling, and Kapampangans led by Apung Suku.[4]

In 1821, American diplomat Edmund Roberts called the Tagalog "Tagalor" in his memoirs about his trips to the Philippines.[5]

According to William Henry Scott, term Tagalog was originally used to differentiate the river dwellers (taga-ilog) from the mountain dwellers (taga-bundok) between Nagcarlan (Laguna) and Lamon Bay, even though they spoke the same language. Father Juan de Oliver, preaching to Batangueños on God's being Father of all people, distinguished Kumintang (Batangas) from Tagalog, Spanish, and Chinese. The Tagalogs called themselves tawo (person), a term they did not apply to other tribes or nations: foreigners who spoke other languages were called  samot or samok.[6] The Tagalogs of the mountain were also referred to as Tingues,[7] and they had some customs different from those of the lowlanders. [8]

History[]

La Bulaqueña (1895) by Juan Luna depicts a woman from Bulacan, Central Luzon, wearing a traditional María Clara gown.
Main articles: History of Manila, History of Luzon, Tondo (historical polity), Rajahnate of Maynila, Namayan, and Dambana

The earliest written record of Tagalog is a late 9th-century document known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription which is about a remission of debt on behalf of the ruler of Tondo.[9] Inscribed on it is year 822 of the Saka Era, the month of Waisaka, and the fourth day of the waning moon, which corresponds to Monday, April 21, 900 CE in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.[10] The writing system used is the Kawi script, while the language is a variety of Old Malay, and contains numerous loanwords from Sanskrit and a few non-Malay vocabulary elements whose origin may be Old Javanese. Some contend it is between Old Tagalog and Old Javanese.[11] The document states that it releases its bearers, the children of Namwaran, from a debt in gold amounting to 1 kati and 8 suwarnas (865 grams).[12][10] Around the creation of the copperplate, a complex society with sarcophagi burial practices developed in the Bondok peninsula in Quezon province. Also, the polities in Namayan, Manila, and Tondo, all in the Pasig river tributary, were established. Various Tagalog societies were also established in Calatagan, Tayabas, shores of Lake Laguna, Marinduque, and Malolos. The enhancements of these Tagalog societies until the middle of the 16th century made it possible for other Tagalog societies to spread and develop various cultural practices such as those concerning the dambana. During the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the Sultanate of Brunei decided to break Tondo's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and establishing Selurung as a Bruneian satellite-state.[13][14]

The most known unification of barangays in pre-colonial Tagalog history are the unification of Tondo barangays (those at the northern edge of the Pasig river), the unification of Manila barangays (those at the southern edge of the Pasig river), the unification of Namayan barangays (those upstream of the Pasig), the unification of Kumintang barangays (those west of Batangas), and the unification of Pangil barangays (those east and south of Laguna de Bay). The first two barangay unification were most likely triggered by conflicts between the two Tagalog sides of the river, while the Namayan unification was most likely triggered by economic means as all trade between the barangays around Laguna de Bay and barangays at Manila Bay need to pass through Namayan via the Pasig river. The unification of Kumintang barangays was probably due to economic ties as traders from East Asia flocked the area, while the unification of Pangil barangays was said to be due to a certain Gat Pangilwhil[clarification needed] unified the barangays under his lakanship. Present-day Tondo is the southern section of Manila's Tondo district, while present-day Maynila is Manila's Intramuros district. Present-day Namayan is Manila's Santa Ana district. Present-day Pangil is the eastern and southern shores of Laguna and a small portion of northern Quezon province. Present-day Kumintang is the areas of western Batangas. The Kumintang barangays are sometimes referred as the 'homeland' of the Tagalog people, however, it is contested by the Tagalogs of Manila.[15]

Tomé Pires noted that the Luções or people from Luzon were "mostly heathen" and were not much esteemed in Malacca at the time he was there, although he also noted that they were strong, industrious, given to useful pursuits. Pires' exploration led him to discover that in their own country, the Luções had foodstuffs, wax, honey, inferior grade gold, had no king, and were governed instead by a group of elders. They traded with tribes from Borneo and Indonesia and Filipino historians note that the language of the Luções was one of the 80 different languages spoken in Malacca.[16] When Magellan's ship arrived in the Philippines, Pigafetta noted that there were Luções there collecting sandalwood.[17] Contact with the rest of Southeast Asia led to the creation of Baybayin script that was later used in the book Doctrina Cristiana, which is written by the 16th century Spanish colonizers.[18]

Costume typical of a family belonging to the Principalía wearing Barong Tagalog and baro't saya.

On May 19, 1571, Miguel López de Legazpi gave the title "city" to the colony of Manila.[19] The title was certified on June 19, 1572.[19] Under Spain, Manila became the colonial entrepot in the Far East. The Philippines was a Spanish colony administered under the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Governor-General of the Philippines who ruled from Manila was sub-ordinate to the Viceroy in Mexico City.[20] Throughout the 333 years of Spanish rule, various grammars and dictionaries were written by Spanish clergymen, including Vocabulario de la lengua tagala by Pedro de San Buenaventura (Pila, Laguna, 1613), Pablo Clain's Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (beginning of the 18th century), Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (1835), and Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog para la administración de los Santos Sacramentos (1850) in addition to early studies of the language.[21] The first substantial dictionary of Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century.[22] Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by P. Juan de Noceda and P. Pedro de Sanlucar and published as Vocabulario de la lengua tagala in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly[23] re-edited, with the last edition being in 2013 in Manila.[24] The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar (1788–1862) is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, his most notable work being the early 19th-century epic Florante at Laura.[25]

Group of Tagalog revolutionaries during the Spanish–American War of 1898

Prior to Spanish arrival and Catholic seeding, the ancient Tagalog people used to cover the following: present-day Calabarzon region except the Polillo Islands, northern Quezon, Alabat island, the Bondoc Peninsula, and easternmost Quezon; Marinduque; Bulacan except for its eastern part; and southwest Nueva Ecija, as much of Nueva Ecija used to be a vast rainforest where numerous nomadic ethnic groups stayed and left. When the polities of Tondo and Maynila fell due to the Spanish, the Tagalog-majority areas grew through Tagalog migrations in portions of Central Luzon and north Mimaropa as a Tagalog migration policy was implemented by Spain. This was continued by the Americans when they defeated Spain in a war.[citation needed]

The first Asian-origin people known to arrive in North America after the beginning of European colonization were a group of Filipinos known as "Luzonians" or Luzon Indians who were part of the crew and landing party of the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de la Buena Esperanza. The ship set sail from Macau and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California coast on October 17, 1587, as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies (the colonial name for what would become the Philippines) and New Spain (Spain's Viceroyalty in North America).[26] More Filipino sailors arrived along the California coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire.[27] By 1763, "Manila men" or "Tagalas" had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana.[28]

First official flag of the Philippine Republic and used during the Philippine Revolution which is mainly used by the Tagalog revolutionaries.
Andrés Bonifacio, one of the founders of Katipunan.

The Tagalog played an active role during the 1896 Philippine Revolution and many of its leaders were either from Manila or surrounding provinces.[29] The Katipunan once intended to name the Philippines as "Katagalugan" or the Tagalog Republic,[30] and extended the meaning of these terms to all natives in the Philippine islands.[31][32] Miguel de Unamuno described Filipino propagandist José Rizal (1861–1896) as the "Tagalog Hamlet" and said of him “a soul that dreads the revolution although deep down desires it. He pivots between fear and hope, between faith and despair.”[33] In 1902, Macario Sakay formed his own Republika ng Katagalugan in the mountains of Morong (today, the province of Rizal), and held the presidency with Francisco Carreón as vice president.[34]

Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the Constitution of Biak-na-Bato in 1897.[35] In 1935, the Philippine constitution designated English and Spanish as official languages, but mandated the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages.[36] After study and deliberation, the National Language Institute, a committee composed of seven members who represented various regions in the Philippines, chose Tagalog as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines.[37][38] President Manuel L. Quezon then, on December 30, 1937, proclaimed the selection of the Tagalog language to be used as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines.[37] In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ (national language).[38] In 1959, the language was further renamed as "Pilipino".[38] The 1973 constitution designated the Tagalog-based "Pilipino", along with English, as an official language and mandated the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino.[39] The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.[40]

Society[]

The Tagalog number around 30 million, making them the largest indigenous Filipino ethno-linguistic group in the country. The second largest is the Sebwano with around 20 million.[41] Tagalog settlements are generally lowland, and are commonly sited on the banks near the delta and "wawà" or mouth of a river.[42] The traditional clothing of the Tagalog, the Barong Tagalog, is the folk costume of the Philippines, while the national language of the Philippines, which is Filipino, is derived mainly from the Tagalog language.[43]

The Tagalog mostly practice Christianity (majority Catholicism and minority Protestantism) with a minority practicing Islam, Buddhism, Anitism (indigenous Tagalog religion), and other religions as well as no religion.[42]

Cuisine[]

Main article: Filipino cuisine § Luzonese cuisine
Sinigang, a Filipino soup or stew to have come from the Tagalogs, is commonly served across the country with other versions found in the rest of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Sinigang is therefore a very popular dish in all of the Philippines.

Bulacan is popular for chicharon (crunchy pork rind), steamed rice and tuber cakes like puto. It is a center for panghimagas or desserts, like brown rice cake or kutsinta, sapin-sapin, suman, cassava cake, halaya ube and the king of sweets, in San Miguel, Bulacan, the famous carabao milk candy pastillas de leche, with its pabalat wrapper.[44] Antipolo, the capital of Rizal province, straddled mid-level in the mountainous regions of the Philippine Sierra Madre, is a city known for its suman and cashew products. Cainta, also in Rizal, is also known for its suman rice cakes and puddings. These are usually topped with latik, a mixture of coconut milk and brown sugar, reduced to a dry crumbly texture. A more modern and time saving alternative to latik are coconut flakes toasted in a frying pan.

Laguna is known for buko pie (coconut pie) and panutsa (peanut brittle). Batangas is home to Taal Lake, a body of water that surrounds Taal Volcano. The lake is home to 75 species of freshwater fish. Among these, the maliputo and tawilis are two not commonly found elsewhere. These fish are delicious native delicacies. Batangas is also known for its special coffee, the strong-tasting kapeng barako. Bistek Tagalog is a dish of strips of sirloin beef slowly cooked in soy sauce, calamansi juice, vinegar and onions. Records have also shown that kare-kare is the Tagalog dish that the Spanish first tasted when they landed in pre-colonial Tondo.[45]

Clothing[]

Tagalog clothing during the 19th century. From Aventures d'un Gentilhomme Breton aux iles Philippines by Paul de la Gironiere, published in 1855.
A working-class Tagalog man, c. 1900
A Tagalog woman in traditional dress, c. 1900

The majority of Tagalogs before colonization wore garments woven by the locals, much of which showed sophisticated designs and techniques. The Boxer Codex also illuminates the intricate and high standard in Tagalog clothing, especially among the gold-draped high society. High society members, which include the datu and the katolonan, also wore accessories made of prized materials. Slaves on the other hand wore simple clothing, seldom loincloths.

During later centuries, Tagalog nobles would wear the barong tagalog for men and the baro't saya for women. When the Philippines became independent, the barong Tagalog became popularised as the national costume of the country, as the wearers were the majority in the new capital, Manila.

Craftsmanship[]

The Tagalog people were also craftsmen. The katolanan, specifically, of each barangay is tasked as the holder of arts and culture, and usually trains craftfolks if ever no craftfolks are living in the barangay. If the barangay has a craftsfolk, the present crafts-folks would teach their crafts to gifted students. Notable crafts made by ancient Tagalogs are boats, fans, agricultural materials, livestock instruments, spears, arrows, shields, accessories, jewelries, clothing, houses, paddles, fish gears, mortar and pestles, food utensils, musical instruments, bamboo and metal wears for inscribing messages, clay wears, toys, and many others.

Belief on the soul and pangangaluluwa[]

The Tagalog people traditionally believe in the two forms of the soul. The first is known as the kakambal (literally means twin), which is the soul of the living. Every time a person sleeps, the kakambal may travel to many mundane and supernatural places which sometimes leads to nightmares if a terrible event is encountered while the kakambal is travelling. When a person dies, the kakambal is ultimately transformed into the second form of the Tagalog soul, which is the kaluluwa (literally means spirit). In traditional Tagalog religion, the kaluluwa then travels to either Kasanaan (if the person was evil when he was living) or Maca (if the person was good when he was living) through sacred tomb-equipped psychopomp creatures known as buwaya[46] or through divine intervention. Both domains are ruled by Bathala, though Kasanaan is also ruled by the deity of souls.[47]

In addition to the belief in the kaluluwa, a tradition called pangangaluluwa sprang. The pangangaluluwa is a traditional Tagalog way of aiding ancestor spirits to arrive well in Maca (place where good spirits go) or to make ancestor spirits that may have been sent to Kasanaan/Kasamaan (place where bad spirits go) be given a chance to be cleansed and go to Maca. The tradition includes the peoples (which represent the kaluluwa of people who have passed on), and their oral tradition conducted through a recitation or song. The people also ask for alms from townsfolk, where the alms are offered to the kaluluwa afterwards. This tradition, now absorbed even in the Christian beliefs of Tagalogs, is modernly-held between October 27 to November 1, although it may be held on any day of the year if need be during the old days. The traditional pangangaluluwa song's composition is:[48][49] Kaluluwa’y dumaratal (The second souls are arriving); Sa tapat ng durungawan (In front of the window); Kampanilya’y tinatantang (The bells are ringing); Ginigising ang may buhay (Waking up those who still have life); Kung kami po’y lilimusan (If we are to be asked to give alms); Dali-daliin po lamang (Make it faster); Baka kami’y mapagsarhan (We may be shut); Ng Pinto ng Kalangitan (From the doors of heaven).[48] The Kalangitan in the lyrics would have been kaluwalhatian during the classical era.[48][49]

Additional lyrics are present in some localities. An example is the additional 4 lines from Nueva Ecija:[48][49] Bukas po ng umaga (Tomorrow morning); Tayong lahat ay magsisimba (We will go to the shrine); Doon natin makikita (There, we will see); Ang misa ng kaluluwa! (The mass of the second souls!)[48]

Belief on dreams[]

The Tagalog people traditionally believe that when a person sleeps, he may or may not dream the omens of Bathala. The omens are either hazy illusions within a dream, the appearance of an omen creature such as tigmamanukan, or sightings from the future. The dream omens do not leave traces on what a person must do to prevent or let the dream come true as it is up to the person to make the proper actions to prevent or make the dream come true. The omen dreams are only warnings and possibilities 'drafted by Bathala'.

Additionally, a person may sometimes encounter nightmares in dreams. There are two reasons why nightmares occur, the first is when the kakambal soul encounters a terrifying event while travelling from the body, or when a bangungot creature sits on top of the sleeping person in a bid of vengeance due to the cutting of her tree home. Majority of the nightmares are said to be due to the kakambal soul encountering terrifying events while travelling.[47][50]

Belief on the cosmos[]

Ancient Tagalogs initially believed that the first deity of the sun and moon was Bathala, as he is a primordial deity and the deity of everything. Later on, the title of deity of the moon was passed on to his favorite daughter, Mayari, while the title of deity of the sun was passed on to his grandson and honorary son, Apolaki. One of his daughters, Tala is the deity of the stars and is the primary deity of the constellations, while Hanan was the deity of mornings and the new age. The Tagalog cosmic beliefs is not exempted from the moon-swallowing serpent myths prevalent throughout the different ethnic peoples of the Philippines. But unlike the moon-swallowing serpent stories of other ethnic peoples, which usually portrays the serpent as a god, the Tagalog people believe that the serpent which causes eclipses is a monster dragon, called Laho, instead. The dragon, despite being strong, can easily be defeated by Mayari, the reason why the moon's darkness during eclipses diminishes within minutes.[51]

The Tagalogs also gave names for various constellations. An example is Balatik (Western counterpart is Orion) which is depicted as a hunting trap.[52]

Burial practices[]

The Tagalog people had numerous burial practices prior to Spanish colonization and Catholic introduction. These practices include, but not limited to, tree burials, cremation burials, sarcophagus burials, and underground burials.[53][54]

In rural areas of Cavite, trees are used as burial places. The dying person chooses the tree beforehand, thus when he or she becomes terminally ill or is evidently going to die because of old age, a hut is built close to the said tree. The deceased's corpse is then entombed vertically inside the hollowed-out tree trunk. Before colonization, a statue known as likha is also entombed with the dead inside the tree trunk. In Pila, Laguna, a complex cremation-burial practice existed, where the body is let alone to decompose first. It is then followed by a ritual performance. The body is burned afterwards through cremation because, according to the belief of ancient people, the “spirit is as clean as though washed in gold" once the body is set on fire. Likha statues were also found in various cremation burial sites.[54] In Mulanay, Quezon and nearby areas, the dead are entombed inside limestone sarcophagi along with a likha statue. However, the practice vanished in the 16th century due to Spanish colonization. In Calatagan, Batangas and nearby areas, the dead are buried under the earth along with likha statues. The statues, measuring 6–12 inches, are personified depictions of anitos. Likha statues are not limited to burial practices as they are also used in homes, prayers, agriculture, medicine, travel, and other means; when these statues are used as such, they are known as larauan, which literally means image.[53]

Additionally, these statues that were buried with the dead are afterwards collected and revered as representatives of the dead loved one. The statues afterwards serve as a connection of mortals to the divine and the afterlife.[55] When the Spanish arrived, they recorded these statues in some accounts. The Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas of 1582 noted that there were even houses that contained "one hundred or two hundred of these idols". In the name colonization, the Spanish destroyed these statues throughout the archipelago. In present-time, only two statues (made of stone) have been found in good condition. These two statues are currently housed in the National Museum of the Philippines in Manila.[55]

Sacred animals, trees, and number[]

The ancient Tagalogs believed that there are three fauna and three flora that are deemed the most sacred. The three sacred fauna include dogs which are blessed by the deities to guide and become allies with mankind, tigmamanukans which are the messengers of Bathala, crocodiles which are guardians of sacred swamps and believed to be psychopomps,[56] while the three sacred flora include coconut palms which are the first vegetation from the ashes of Galang Kaluluwa and Ulilang Kaluluwa, balete trees which are home to the supernaturals, and bamboos which is where mankind sprang from.[57][15][58] The number three is believed to be sacred in ancient Tagalog beliefs. When Bathala and Ulilang Kaluluwa battled during the cosmic creation, the war lasted for three days and three nights. Additionally, Bathala had three divine daughters (Mayari, Tala, and Hanan) from a mortal women, and there are three divine abodes, namely, Maca, Kasamaan, and Kaluwalhatian. Also, there were three divine beings during the cosmic creation, Bathala, Ulilang Kaluluwa, and Galang Kaluluwa. Later on, when Galang Kaluluwa and Ulilang Kaluluwa died, Aman Sinaya and Amihan joined Bathala in the trinity of deities. In later stories, Aman Sinaya chose to dwell underneath the ocean while Amihan chose to travel throughout the middleworld. During that time, the trinity of deities became Bathala, Lakapati, and Meylupa. Meylupa was later replaced by Sitan after Meylupa chose to live as a hermit. In the most recent trinity, after Bathala died (or went into a deep slumber according to other sources), the trinity consisted of Mayari, Apolaki, and Sitan.[55]

A 2018 archaeological research found that Tagalog dogs were indeed held in high regard prior to colonization and were treated as equals, backing the oral knowledge stating that dogs are beings blessed by the deities. Dogs were buried, never as sacrificial offerings or when a master dies, but always "individually", having their own right to proper burial practices. A burial site in Santa Ana, Manila exhibited a dog which was first buried, and after a few years, the dog's human child companion who died was buried above the dog's burial, exemplifying the human prestige given to dogs in ancient Tagalog beliefs.[59][60]

Religion[]

The Tagalog people initially had their own unique religion, modernly known as Tagalismo as the original name of the religion is unknown and was not documented by the Spanish. Spanish accounts also call the Tagalog religion as Anitismo (or Anitism in English) and Anitheria, the former is accepted by Tagalog scholars and present-day Anitist adherents while the latter is seen as a derogatory term. The practices of Tagalismo were usually done within a dambana. When the Spanish conquered the country, Roman Catholicism was inputted by the Spanish above all other religions they deemed as 'lesser' than Western religion. Currently, the majority of Tagalogs are Roman Catholics, while a relatively smaller amount belong to various Protestant sects or nationalized Christian Churches. A small number of Tagalogs, however, have managed to revert to Tagalismo/Anitismo. Some Tagalogs also adhere to Islam, although their number is extremely small and fragmented.

Anitism/Tagalism[]

Main articles: List of Philippine mythological figures, Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people, and Anito

The pre-colonial religion of the Tagalog people was a Syncretic form of indigenous Tagalog belief system. The religion revolved around the community through the Katalonan and the dambana, known also as lambana in the Old Tagalog language.[61][62][63] This animism was collectively called Tagalism (Tagalog religion) or Anitism (Anito religion).

Ancient Tagalog deities documented by the Spaniards[]

  • Arao (Araw = sun) - According to Juan de Plasencia, the ancient Tagalogs worshiped the sun on account of its beauty.[64] When it rains with sunshine and the sky is somewhat red, they say that the anitos get together to give them war. And they are, and with great fear, and neither women nor children allow them to come down from the houses, until it clears and the sky becomes clear.[65] During solar eclipse (limlim), the sun was said to cover its face, no special ceremony is reported unlike in the case of lunar eclipse.[66]
  • Alagaca (Alagaka) - The protector of hunters.[67][68]
  • Alpriapo (The priapus) - An idol mentioned by an anonymous contemporary of Plasencia:[69] "They worshiped idols which were called Alpriapo, Lacapati, and Meilupa, but God has, in His goodness, enlightened them with the grace of His divine gospel, and they worship the living God in spirit."[70] The Spanish term Alpriapo “the priapus” is left untranslated. Apparently the Spanish chronicler did not know the Tagalog name of this deity.[71] They could be referring to Dian Masalanta.[72]
  • Amanicable (Ama-ni-Kable = father of Kable) - The advocate and protector of hunters.[73][74] In ancient Tagalog customs, the first son or daughter gave the surname to the parents, e.g. Amani Maliuag, Ynani Malacas, “the father of Maliuag,” “the mother of Malacas.”[75][76] Therefore, Amanicable could be the surname of either Paglingñalan or Alagaca or both if they are identical.
  • Amansinaya (Amang Sinaya = father of Sinaya) - The advocate of fishermen, who is said to be the inventor of fishing gear. Before casting their nets or fishing lines, the fishermen would first whistle and then pray to Amansinaya saying, “Kasumpa ako, naway diriyan” which meant “I am your sworn friend, let it be there”, in reference to the fish.[73][77] According to San Buenaventura dictionary (1613), the meaning of Amansinaya is "Father of sinaya" (Padre de sinaya). In ancient Tagalog customs, the first son or daughter gave the surname to the parents, e.g. Amani Maliuag, Ynani Malacas, “the father of Maliuag,” “the mother of Malacas.”[75] The connector "ni" could be replaced by the linker, e.g. <Amang Juan> Amáñg Suwáñ (Mag. 1679:3) "Juan's father".[76] The term sinaya means “the first catch of a fishnet, fishtrap, or a hunting dog”. Pasinaya is a term used as an invitation to share a first catch.[78] According to Francisco Colin, fishermen would not make use of the first cast of the net or a new fish-corral, for they thought that they would get no more fish if they did the opposite. Neither must one talk in the fisherman's house of his new nets, or in that of the hunter of dogs recently purchased, until they had made a capture or had some good luck; for if they did not observe that, the virtue was taken from the nets and the cunning from the dogs.[79]
  • Badhala Catotobo (Bathala katutubo = fellow native/conborn bathala) - A sort of twin spirit called katutubo "fellow native" was born along with a person, and was in charge of protecting them during all their life. Catholic missionaries will use the term to refer to the guardian angel.[80]
  • Balacbac (Balakbák) & Balantáy - The two guardians of Tanguban: the abode of the souls of the dead.[67][68] Tanguban is divided into two regions: one is Maca or "kasanáan ng tuwa" ("a thousand joys") where the good souls temporarily stays pending resurrection; and the other is the "kasanáan ng hírap" ("a thousand pains") or simply Casanáan (Kasanáan), where the souls of the wicked went, which is said to be inhabited by devils called sitan.[81] In classical Tagalog, the term sánà could either mean "abundance" or "destruction". It is possible that the term sánà "abundance" was borrowed from Arabic jannaţ "garden, paradise"; while the term sánà "destruction" was borrowed from Arabic jahannam "hell".[82] The soul was said to be ferried on a boat by a Charon-like figure to the other shore (ibáyo) of an expanse of water now regarded as a wide river (ílog), now as a lake or a sea (dágat). The other world is probably deemed to be located where the sun was supposed to drown (lunod) every evening, hence tha name for the west kanlunúran > kanlúran.[83]
  • Balangao/Balangau (Balangaw = rainbow) - According to Francisco Colin, the ancient Tagalogs attributed to the rainbow its kind of divinity.[84] Colin also states " that the bird Tigmamanuquin derived its interpretation as a divinity from the rainbow.”[85] The rainbow was regarded as a divine sign and it is considered blasphemy to point finger at it.[86] The rainbow was believed to be either Bathala's bridge (balaghari)[87] or loincloth (bahaghari).[88] The souls of those who: perished by the sword, were devoured by crocodiles or sharks, and killed by lightning; immediately ascends to Kaluwálhatian (glory) by means of the rainbow (balangaw)[89][90][91] In classical Tagalog the proper name for the rainbow is Balangaw, while bahaghari was only a poetic term referring to Balangaw.[86] Other terms for rainbow are balantok and bahagsubay.[92] The rainbow is sometimes referred to as bathala or badhala, a title also attributed to heavenly bodies which predicted events.[93] This deity should not be confused with Varangao (Barangaw) the Visayan god of rainbow, war, and plundering expedition.[94]
  • Balátic (“the Crossbow : the Eagle, a constellation of three stars near the celestial equator, called Marineras or Tres Marías in Renaissance Spanish”)[95][64]
  • Balo - The anitos that haunts deserted places [otros anitos de los despoblados].[96]
  • Bathala mei Capal (Bathala Maykapal = God the Creator) - The transcendent supreme being: the creator and ruler of the universe. Known under several names, titles, and epithets such as: Anatala,[67] Molayare (Mulayari = source/origin of power/being),[97][98] Dioata (Diwata = divinity/remote/very distant),[97][99][100] Meylupa (Maylupa = owner of the earth),[101] etc. He had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos (ancestral spirits), and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases.[102] The term "bathala" is a title attributed not only to the supreme being but also to personal tutelary anitos (Badhala catotobo), omen birds (Tigmamanuquin), the mountain which is the abode of Tigmamanuquin, comets and other heavenly bodies which the early Tagalog people believed predicted events.[103][104] For this reason, some Spanish chroniclers had been lost in their account about Bathala Maykapal and promptly asserted that he is an alligator , a crow, a bird called tigmamanukin, a rainbow, etc.[105][106]
  • Bibit - Generally diseases are attributed to a deity called Bibit. A strange belief because the deity is not presented as a malevolent one, but as being sick itself. If someone was sick they would make offerings of food to Bibit because the catalona had first to cure the deity before she was able to act as a physician and for the patient to recover.[73][107]
  • Bingsól - The advocate of ploughmen.[67][68]
  • Bisô (Holeless-Eared) - The police officer of heaven.[67][68]
  • Boking/Bokong - an anito.[108]
  • Buan/Colalaiyng (Buwan = moon; Kulalaying = Jew's harp) - According to the Spanish chroniclers the ancient Tagalogs revered the moon (Buwan) as a deity, especially when it was new (the first sliver of the moon), at which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome, asking it to provide them with a lot of gold; others for a lot of rice; others that it give them a beautiful wife or a noble husband who is well-mannered and rich; others that it bestow on them health and long life; in short, everyone asks for what they most desire because they believe and are convinced it can give it to them abundantly.[109][64][110] San Buenaventura dictionary lists a prayer dedicated to the moon that was recited during the new moon: “Buwáñg Panginóon kó, payamánin mó akó“ which translates to "Moon, my Lord/Lady, make me rich.” When one is on a mission no matter how important, it is well to desist from accomplishing the mission if a lunar eclipse occurs. A ring which appears around the moon is an indication of the demise of some chief.[111] In these cases, the moon is referred to as bathala a title attributed to heavenly bodies which the early Tagalog people believed predicted events.[112] Another name for the moon or the proper name for the anito of the moon is Colalaiyng {N&S 1754: 151-152: Colalaiyng. pc. Asi llamaban á la luna, ó á una doncella en la luna, segun sus consejas.}. The Tagalogs from Laguna called her “Dalágañg nása Buwán”  (Maiden in the Moon), in reference to the image formed by the shadow on the moon, which they see as a face (sangmukti) of a young maid (doncella).[113][114][115] [116][117][67] Ceremonies of her cult were regularly performed at the new moon and the full moon with offerings of roosters made to fly in her direction. She was also referred to as “Dalágañg Binúbúkot” (Cloistered Maiden). In ancient Tagalog society, some virgins were cloistered like nuns or as amongs Muslims, the term used to refer to them were binúkot (SB 1613:279; N&S 1860:266) and kinalî (N&S 1860:266; Pang. 1972:287). The reason for this custom is not explained, but may have been a Muslim one.[118][119]
  • Bulac-pandan (Búlak Pandán = Flower of Pandan)[67][68]
  • Bulactala (Búlak Tálà = "Flower of Tala" i.e. the planet Venus)[67][68] - The anito of the planet Venus (tala).
  • Capiso Pabalita (Kapiso Pabalítà = News-giving) - The protector of travelers.[67][68]
  • Cirit/Zirit (Sirit = Snake's hiss) - A servant of the anitos.[67][68]
  • Dian Masalanta (Diyan Masalanta = the blind deity; the devastating deity) - The advocate of lovers and of generation (procreation).[64] The meaning of the name Dian Masalanta is not provided, but according to the author Jean-Paul G. Potet (Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs, 2018) the meaning could be "the blind deity" [dian "deity", ma – "adj. prefic" + salanta "blindness"].[72] Masalanta (devastating) comes from the root word salanta, which in the Noceda and Sanlucar Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala (1754)" and the San Buenaventura dictionary (1613) lists the meaning as "poor, needy, crippled, and blind". Generally, magsalanta and nasalanta, which means "is destroyed/devastated", is used when there is a calamity such as: a typhoon, flood, or earthquake.[120] Therefore, Dian Masalanta could also mean "devastating deity". 
  • Dingali - A particular type of family-anitos.[121]
  • Guinarawan (Ginarawan) - an evil spirit.[122]
  • Guinoong Dalaga (Ginúoñg Dalága= lady maiden) - The anito of the crops.[67][68]
  • Guinoong Ganay (Ginúoñg Gánay = lady old maid) - According to Luciano P. R. Santiago, Guinoong Ganay is the advocate of single women that inhabit the Calumpang tree.[67][68][123]
  • Guinoong Panay (Ginúoñg Panáy = lady "syzygium/tuffy"?) - the anito of kalumpang tree (Sterculia foetida).[67][68]
  • Guinoong Pagsohotan (Ginúoñg Pagsuotán = clothing lady) - The protectress of women in travail.[67][68]
  • Hasangan (Hasanggán) - A terrible anito.[67][68]
  • Húya/Tumanor (Tumanod = warden) - an ill-famed idol that crept under houses. On hearing it, people threw ashes, and struck the floor while saying: "Iri-iri ya, si Húya!" (SB 1613:36) [= "Take that, Huya!"] – his name is apparently assimilated to the (marriage) pancake called madhúyà (marúyà) and the ashes being a parody for flour.[124][74]
  • Ídianale (Í-diyanale = mother of Diyánale) - Lacapati and Ídianale were the patrons of cultivated lands and of husbandry.[64] In ancient Tagalog customs, the first son or daughter gave the surname to the parents, e.g. Amani Maliuag, Ynani Malacas, “the father of Maliuag,” “the mother of Malacas.”[75] Amá and iná could be respectively reduced to a- and i- and used as prefixes (probably stressed) to the child's name, e.g. Á-Pálad "Palad's father", Í-Pálad "Palad's mother". Therefore, Ídianale is a surname of a female anito.[76]
  • Lacambini/Lacandaytan (Lakambini = calm/repose/modest lord;[125] Lakang Daitan = lord of attachment[126]) - The protector of the throat, and the advocate in case of throat ailment.[73] Some author wrongly transcribed his name as Lacambui, and according to them he is the god of the ancient Tagalogs who fed.[127] Isabelo de los Reyes also referred to this anito as Lakan-busog and equates him with the Visayan diwata named Makabosog; and the kibaan of Ilocanos that gives his friend a pot that produces all kinds of food.[128] The Tagalog title "laka" (lakan) come from Java "raka" "lord" found in the Kalasan inscription dated S'ka 700/22 March 779 (Juan Francisco 1971:151) [Potet, T customs, 37]. According to Francisco Colin (1663), the title "Lacan or Gat" is the equivalent to the Spanish "Don", and that the Don (Doña) of women is not Lacan or Gat but "Dayang".[75] This indicate that the gender of this anito is "male". In contemporary Tagalog Dictionaries, the meaning of this term is given as "a muse , a charming beautiful lady".[129]
  • La Campinay (Lakampinay) - The Old Midwife.[67][68] The Tagalog title "laka" (lakan) come from Java "raka" "lord" found in the Kalasan inscription dated S'ka 700/22 March 779 (Juan Francisco 1971:151).[130] According to Francisco Colin (1663), the title "Lacan or Gat" is the equivalent to the Spanish "Don", and that the Don (Doña) of women is not Lacan or Gat but "Dayang".[75] This indicates that La Campinay is a "male midwife", which is not uncommon in southeast Asia.[131]
  • Lacan Balingasay (Lakang Balingasay) - Father Juan de Oliver in his Declaracion de la Doctrina Christiana en idioma tagalog (1599). While preaching in Batangas, he mentioned Lakan Balingasay and compared him to Beelzebub: "malaking anito ang pangalang Belzebu, na kun baga dito Lakan Balingasay."[132] Balingasay is a wood derived from Buchanania arborescens, a type of fruit bearing species that is commonly found in Luzon.
  • Lacapati (Lakapati, from Sanskrit Locapati = Lord of the world) - The major fertility deity, fittingly represented by an image of a man and a woman joined together (androgyne) that signifies the procreative power of heterosexual union.[77][133] He was the advocate of sowed fields,[73] of husbandry,[64] and of vagrants and waifs.[67] Sacrifices of food and words are made to him by the ancient Tagalogs, asking for water for their fields and for him to give them fish when they go fishing in the sea, saying if they do not do this, they would have no water for their field and much less would they catch any fish when they go fishing.[97] During rituals and offerings—known as maganito—in the fields and during the planting season, farmers would hold a child up in the air while invoking Lakapati and chant “Lakapati, pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mo gutumin.” (Translation: Lakapati, feed this thy slave; let him not hunger).[73] Other authors described him as a hemaphrodite devil who satisfies his carnal appetite with men and women.[127][134] This could be a misinterpretation of Lacapati's relation to the catalonas (shamans). In Ngaju Dayak religion, the shaman's altered state of consciousness is likened to male/female sexual intercourse: the shaman work in an embodiment transtate that is considered feminine or receptive; the deity, is considered masculine or the dynamic, entering force.[135] Unlike the name "Lacambini" (Lakambini) or Lacan Baliñgasay (Lakang Balingasay), the linker (e.g. m, ng, n) between laka and pati is not used because this name has a different origin: Sanskrit loka-pati = "lord of the world" (an epithet of "Brahman the Creator" and "Vishnu the Preserver"); Sans. loka = location, the earth, field + Sans. pati = lord.[136][130][137]
  • Lachanbacor (Lakhang Bakod = lacquered fence) - An ithyphallic deity. The anito of the fruits of the earth and protector of swiddens. His image or wooden statue is described as having gold eyes and teeth and a gilded genitalia as long as a rice stalk; its body is completely hollow. When the people needed his help, they hold a banquet and revel in the fields under a canopy that they construct there for this purpose and where they erect a kind of altar. On this altar they place his wooden statue. And those making the sacrifice form a ring and eat and feast. And they have the priests (catalona) place some of the food they are to eat in the mouth of the statue; they also give him some of the beverage they are to drink. And they are convinced that by reciting some superstitious words he will give them the very good and abundant fruits asked of him.[97][77][138] He was offered eels when fencing swiddens—because, they said, his were the strongest  of all fences, “linalachan niya ang bacor nang bucqir” ("He lacquered the fences of the field").[139] Lacha (Lakha) means "red lacquer".[136] Some authors say he is the god who cured diseases,[127] for this reason Isabelo de los Reyes compared him with the kibaans of Ilocanos that nests in the plants that serve as fences (living fences) and cured illnesses.[128]
  • Laho (from the Asura named Rahu) - The serpent or dragon who was believed to devour the moon and cause lunar eclipse.[140] When the moon is eclipsed, the people of various districts generally go out into the street or into the open fields, with bells, panastanes, etc. They strike them with great force and violence in order that they might thereby protect the moon which they say is being eaten or swallowed by the dragon, tiger, or crocodile. If they wish to say “the eclipse of the moon” it is very common among them to use this locution, saying "Linamon laho bovan" ("Laho is swallowing the moon"). The Spaniards believed that the Tagalogs learned this practice from the Sangley (Chinese).[141][142]
  • Lampinsaca (Lampinsákà = cripple) - The advocate of the lame and the cripple.[67][68]
  • Linğa (Linggá = from Sanskrit "lingam", the phallic symbol of the Hindu god "Shiva the Destroyer") - The anito who was invoked in case of sickness.[73] Like his contemporaries, the Spanish lexicographer who recorded this term did not have the necessary knowledge to identify it.[143] In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays a key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease.[144][145][146]
  • Macapulao (Makapúlaw = watcher) - The advocate of sailors.[67][68]
  • Macatalubhay (Makatalubháy) - The anito of bananas.[67][68]
  • Mancocotor (Mangkukutud) - The advocate of manunuba (tuba tappers/coconut wine makers) and protector of coconut palm trees.[73][147] Offering is made to him by the manunubas before climbing a tree, lest they ran the risk of a fall from the trunk.[132]
  • Magináong Sungmásandāl (Maginúoñg Sungmásandāl = Lord "the one that keeps close")[67][68]
  • Maguinoong Campongan (Maginúoñg Kampungán = lord supporter) - The anito of harvest and sown fields.[67][68]
  • Mapolon (Mapúlon = Pleiades)[64]
  • Quinon sana (Kinunsánà) - The name of the supreme deity among mountaineers (Boxer 2016:66/67). Schol. This is an -in-derivative of *kunsánà, itself a kun- derivative of sánà “abundance”. The prefix kun- is also found in wárì “opinion” < kunwárì “fake”.[148][149] The god of the fields and of the jungles to whom sacrifices of food are made by the priests called catalona, beseeching him to do them no harm or injury while they are in their fields or the jungle. They perform this sacrifice and hold this banquet for him in order to keep him satisfied and benevolent.[97] The Tagalogs should have no native word for 'forest' is no less surprising than their lack of terms for 'volcano' and 'lava'. ZORC (1993) is of the opinion that there must have existed native Tagalog terms, and that they disappeared from the language because they were taboo: uttering them would have called the attention of the corresponding wrathful gods.[150]
  • Paalolong (Paalúlong = barker) - The advocate of the sick and the dead.[67][68]
  • Paglingñalan (Paglingniyalán) - The advocate of hunters.[67][68]
  • Pagvaagan (Pagwaagán) - the anito of the winds.[67][68]
  • Pilipit (Spiral) - the ancient Tagalogs swear their oaths to a statuette of a deity or monstrous beast, they called Pilipit, that would devour a perjurer. San Buenaventura (1613:369) describes the Pilipit as a devil figure; a ceramic cat apparently made in China. The oath could also be taken on a substitute – a snail bearing the same name, both having a twisted appearance. According to Francisco Colin, when the chiefs of Manila and Tondo swore allegiance to the Catholic sovereigns, in the year one thousand five hundred and seventy-one, they confirmed the peace agreements and the subjection with an oath, asking “the sun to pierce them through the middle, the crocodiles to eat them, and the women not to show them any favor or wish them well, if they broke their word.” Sometimes they performed the pasambahan for greater solemnity and confirmation of the oath. That consisted in bringing forward the figure of some monstrous beast asking that they might be broken into pieces by it if they failed in their promise.[75] According to Father Noceda and Blumentritt , the Tagalogs called Pasambahan the place where they took oath before the figure of a very ugly animal.[151]
  • Posor-lupa (Púsod-Lúpā = earth navel) - the anito of the fields.[67][68]
  • Sayc (Sayik, from Arabic shaykh = sheikh. This name was wrongly transcribed as Hayc in the English translation of the Boxer Codex.[152]) - The anito of the sea. Seamen before they set sail sponsored a major ceremony (maganito) wherein sacrifices of banquets and food are offerered to him, through a catalona, asking him to protect them from tempests and storms when traveling by sea, and to grant them good weather and favorable calm winds.[97]
  • Siac Matanda (Siyák Matandâ = old sheikh) - The advocate of merchants and second-hand dealers.[67][68]
  • Siukuy (Siyokoy = from Chinese Mandarin "shuǐguǐ" which means "water ghost") - the anito of the rivers [Era el dios de los ríos de los tágalos antiguos].[153][154] In modern Tagalog folklore, siyokoy are sea monsters, an anthropoid whose body is covered in glistening brown or green fish scales and webbet feet; some description also give them long, green tentacles and gill slits; they drown fishermen and consume them for food.[155]
  • Tala (the plane Venus)[64]
  • Tauong Damo (Tawong Damo) - Wicked anitos or savaged mountain gods believed to be responsible for the abortion.[156] According to Blumentritt, the anitos that inspired so much fear among the Tagalogs, such as those that lived in the forest, seem to be the anitos of the old owners or natives of the regions that was occupied by the immigrant Tagalogs.[157] Linguists such as David Zorc and Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs and other Central Philippine ethno-linguistic groups originated in Northeastern Mindanao or the Eastern Visayas.[158][159]
  • The first midwife in the world - An unnamed deity, mentioned in the Boxer Codex (1590), called "the first midwife in the world"; to whom the midwives, when they do their job, prayed to saying: “Oh you, first midwife, whose office I now do by your will, please give me so that through my help this creature may come to light ”.[97] They could be referring to Lacampinay, the old midwife.
  • Unnamed anito of the house - whose favor they implored whenever an infant was born, and when it was suckled and the breast offered to it.[160]
  • Unnamed ferryman of the dead - The ancient Tagalogs believed that when a man died, his soul was obliged to pass a river or lake where there was a boat rowed by an old boatman; and to pay his passage they fastened some money on the arm of the dead man (Aduarte 1640).[161][162] The unnamed ferryman could be Paalolong, the god of the sick and of the dead.
  • Unnamed husband-and-wife deities - In the Pardo inquisition report (1686), the inquisitor found bamboo goblets, pebbles, and skeins of hair, and a one-piece stone statue representing husband-and-wife deities.[163]
  • Unnamed serpent deity - The priestesses and her acolytes of the town of Santo Tomas, Laguna de Bay, interrogated by the Dominican inquisitors from the University of Santo Tomas, Manila, answered that, when they performed a ceremony in a cave, used as a temple, a deity would appear to them in the shape of a python (sawa).[164] Usually, it is reported that the spirit—whether that of a deity or an ancestor—took the form of a shadow (aníno) to enter the body of the shaman. The sound of a flute was heard when the spirit was present (Boxer 2016:82/83). In their dreams, the shaman saw these spirits as a black man (itím na laláki) or a wild water buffalo (anwáng). Similarly, a mountain spirit called tigbálang was perceived as a black ghost, hence Anáki'ý ikáw ay tigbálang "You look like a mountain spirit." Said to a person dressed in black attires. The spirit appearing as a python to the congregation is an exception.[164][165]

Anting-anting pantheon[166][]

  • Infinito Dios - The highest god and the oldest being from whom everything emanated. The virtue (Birtud/Galing) residing in and empowering the anting-anting and agimat (amulets and talismans). He is also referred to as Nuno (Ancient One, earth deity), Animasola (Lonely Soul, air deity), Waksim (As water deity), and Atardar (His warrior or protective aspect). He is identified to Bathala Maykapal.
  • Infinita Dios - The female aspect of the Divine. She is said to be the first emanation of the Infinito Dios who sprang forth from his mind when he decided to have someone help him in his task of creation.  She is also referred to as Maria (which stands for: Maris, Amantisimo, Rexsum, Imperator, Altisima), Gumamela Celis (Flower of Heaven), Rosa Mundi (Flower of the World), and Dios Ina (God the Mother); she is also identified with Inang Pilipinas (Mother Philippines) or Inang Bayan (Motherland) similar to Ibu Pertiwi of Indonesia.
  • The first two elders (nuno) who reside in the two corners of the Earth and are the guardians of the Sun and the Moon:
    • UPH MADAC - She is the first spirit of the twenty-four Ancianos, except for guarding the first hour after midnight. She designed the Sun in accordance with the task given to her by the Infinito Dios. She made many designs and presented them to her companions and to the Lord, and they chose and all agreed on the shape or appearance of the sun which gives light to the world from then until now and into the future.
    • ABO NATAC - He is the second spirit, who designed the Moon which gives us light during the night. He did the same, many were also created and these were presented to his companions and to the Infinito Dios, and they agreed on the shape of the moon that is present today.
  • The following six spirits do not receive any other office. What they did was just wander out into the world, and be God's watchmen:
    • ELIM – The watchman from 3 a.m. to 3:59 AM.
    • BORIM – The watchman from 4:00 AM to 4:59 AM.
    • MORIM – The watchman from 5:00 AM to 5:59 AM.
    • BICAIRIM – The watchman from 6:00 AM to 6:59 AM.
    • PERSALUTIM - The watchman from 7:00 AM to 7:59 AM.
    • MITIM - The watchman from 8:00 AM to 8:59 AM.
  • The Siete Arkanghelis:
    • AMALEY - He is the president and first minister of the archangel warriors. He is San Miguel Arcanghel, on his shoulders rests the fight against the wicked to have security on earth and in heaven. San Miguel is assigned as the watchman from 9:00 AM to 9:59 AM on each day, he is also the watchman on the first day of each week, which is Sunday, so he is the one to call on these days to avoid any disasters or events that do not occur. He is also the spirit messenger and messenger of the Infinito Dios throughout the heavens.
    • ALPACOR – He is the one made secretary by the Siete Arkanghelis of the whole universe, he is San Gabriel who is the recorder of all the hidden wonders in the whole universe and galaxy. San Gabriel is the watchman from 10:00 AM to 10:59 AM of each day, He is also the watchman every Monday, therefore it is good to call him on this day to be saved from all disasters .
    • AMACOR - He is the prince of the angelic justice and also the giver of heavenly grace for which he is also the Butler of the Infinito Dios. This angel is well known by the name San Rafael, he is the watchman at 11:00 AM of each day and of Tuesdays. He is the one to be called on these days for salvation from calamities.
    • APALCO - He is the angel who was made Justicia mayor in heaven. Chief Ruler of heavenly things and recommender to God of the punishment to be inflicted, he is also the giver of wisdom to be used by the soul and earthly body of man. This angel is identified as San Uriel who is assigned to watch at 12 noon and he is also the watchman on Wednesdays, so he must be called on this day to be saved from any disaster.
    • ALCO - This is the spirit that offers or prays to God of any good work of man, he is also the receiver and informer of human needs, regarding God. This angel is San Seatiel who is the watchman on Thursdays and the time of the first hour of the afternoon of each day, so he should be the one to be called on these days:
    • ARACO - This is the spirit who was made the keeper of treasures and graces. He holds the key to giving the riches and glory of God. This angel is San Judiel, the benefactor and giver of God's mercy. He is also the assigned watchman on Fridays, so he should be the one to be called on these days.
    • AZARAGUE - This is the guardian spirit of Heaven and Earth, and he is the helper and protector of all spirits under the Infinito Dios. He is San Baraquiel the watchman at 3 pm of each day and is also assigned as the watchman of every Saturdays, so he is the one to be called on these days. San Baraquiel is the last of the Seven Archangels to be known as the seven warriors of God the Father.
  • LUXBEL – He is the youngest of the 16 spirits first created by the Infinito Dios. His name means "Light of Heaven" because he is the closest to God. When God began his creation, he was baptized with the name BECCA, but he disobeyed the Infinito Dios so he renamed him LUXQUER or LUCIFER. The history of Luxbel can be found in a book entitled DIEZ MUNDOS (Ten Planets). In this book you will find various types of illicit wisdom such as hexes (kulam), glamour (malik mata), philters (gayuma) and many more. Anyone is discouraged to have a copy of this book because it is the cause of unforgivable sin to the Lord.
  • The following five spirits were not baptized and did not accept the calling. When the Lord Jesus Christ was currently hanging on the cross, they came to be baptized, but it did not happen because at that time our Lord Jesus breathed his last. They are:
    • ISTAC - The watchman from 5:00 PM to 5:59 PM.
    • INATAC - The watchman from 6:00 PM to 6:59 PM.
    • ISLALAO - The watchman from 7:00 PM to 7:59 PM.
    • TARTARAO - The watchman from 8:00 PM to 8:59 PM.
    • SARAPAO - The watchman from 9:00 PM to 9:59 PM.
  • The last three are the Santisima Trinidad, to whom the Infinito Dios gave authority to create the world and its inhabitants.:
    • MAGUGAB - This spirit presents himself as Dios Ama (God the Father), who some say is the first person of the Santisima Trinidad. But as Dios Ama, he is not the Infinito Dios, but only given him the right and duty to identify himself as God the Father. He was given the design of the world and all its contents such as the various types of flying creatures in the air or those crawling on the ground, especially man. He is the watchman from 9:00 PM to 9:59 PM.
    • MARIAGUB - This spirit is the second person in the Santisima Trinidad, he has the fullness of Dios Anak (God the Son) and the power to fulfill the mysteries wrought by the Lord Jesus Christ. He is the spirit who incarnates in order to save those who receive and believe in him. This spirit is the one who, in every age, enters the body of the people commanded by God, which was then called the "Lamb of God." He is the watchman from 10:00 PM to 10:59 PM.
    • MAGUB - This is the third person of the Santisima Trinidad as the Espiritu Santo (Holy Spirit), he is the one who acts to accomplish the thing that must happen in the present. Through his power the promises of the Infinito Dios to the People are formed and fulfilled. He is watchman from 11:00 PM to midnight or 12: 00MN.

Other Deities[]

  • Bernardo Carpio - The Hispanized avatar of the gigantic underworld crocodile that cause earthquake in pre-colonial Tagalog mythology, and of Palangíyi (from Malay Palángi = rainbow) the mythical King of the Tagalog people. Legend has it that the Tagalog people have a giant king—a messianic figure—named Bernardo Carpio, squeezed between two mountains or two great rocks in the Mountains of Montalban, and who causes earthquakes whenever he tries to free himself. Once the last link on the chains binding him is broken, the enslavement and oppression of his people will be replaced with freedom and happiness. Filipino revolutionary heroes Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio are said to have paid homage to the Bernardo Carpio legend - the former by making a pilgrimage to Montalban, and the latter making the caves of Montalban the secret meeting place for the Katipunan movement.[167][168][169]
  • Maria Makiling - The diwata of Mt. Makiling.

Roman Catholicism[]

The Feast of the Black Nazarene in Quiapo, Manila, which is held at every 9th of January.

Roman Catholicism first arrived in Tagalog areas in the Philippines during the 16th century when the Spanish toppled the polities of Tondo and Maynila in the Pasig River. Later on, they imposed the European religion and tried to replace the shamanistic belief systems of the natives. By the 18th century, majority of Tagalogs have adhered to Roman Catholicism, however, the shamanistic beliefs and other indigenous belief systems of Tagalogs were passed down secretly by the natives to the younger generations, effectively preserving their beliefs of creatures and supernatural crafts. In present time, the majority of Tagalogs continue to adhere to Roman Catholicism. The biggest Catholic procession in the Philippines is currently the Pista ng Itim na Nazareno (Feast of the Black Nazarene), which is dominantly Tagalog in nature.

For Tagalog Catholics, sacred sites include cathedrals, basilicas, churches, chapels, and cemeteries. However, due to the belief systems passed down from Tagalismo, certain mountains are also valued as sacred sites, such as Mount Makiling and Mount Banahaw.

Islam[]

A few Tagalogs practice Islam. By the early 16th century, some Tagalogs (especially merchants) were Muslim due to their links with Bruneian Malays.[170]

Language and writing system[]

Indigenous[]

Main articles: Tagalog language and Baybayin
See also: Old Tagalog
Baybayin, the traditional suyat script of the Tagalog people.
An example of a Baybayin character, Ka, was used in one of the flags of Katipunan and is currently seen in some government logos.

The language of the Tagalog people evolved from Old Tagalog to Modern Tagalog. Modern Tagalog has five distinct dialects:

  • The Northern Tagalog (Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Zambales, and Bataan) has words in-putted into it from the Kapampangan and Ilocano languages.
  • Southern Tagalog (Batangas and Quezon) is unique as it necessitate the use of Tagalog without the combination of the English languages.
  • In contrast, Central Tagalog (Manila, Cavite, Laguna, and Rizal except Tanay) is predominantly a mixture of Tagalog and English.
  • The Tagalog of Tanay maintains usage of the most native words despite influx from other cultures; it is the only highly preserved Tagalog dialect in mainland Luzon and is the most endangered Tagalog dialect.
  • Lastly, the Marinduque Tagalog dialect is known as the purest of all Tagalog dialects, as the dialect has little influence from past colonizers.

The writing suyat script of the indigenous Tagalogs is the Baybayin. Only few people today know how to read and write in Baybayin. Due to this, the ancient writing script of the Tagalog has been regarded as nearly extinct. A bill in Congress has been filed to make Baybayin the country's national script, however, it is still pending in the Senate and the House of Representatives. Nowadays, the Baybayin is artistically expressed in calligraphy, as it has been traditionally.

The Tagalog people are also known for their tanaga, an indigenous artistic poetic form of the Tagalog people's idioms, feelings, teachings, and ways of life. The tanaga strictly has four lines only, each having seven syllables only.

Colonial[]

The Tagalog people were skilled Spanish speakers from the 18th to 19th centuries due to the Spanish colonial occupation era. When the Americans arrived, English became the most important language in the 20th century. At present-time, the language of the Tagalogs are Tagalog, English, and a mix of the two, known in Tagalog pop culture as Taglish. Some Spanish words are still used by the Tagalog, though sentence construction in Spanish is no longer used.

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ "EAST & SOUTHEAST ASIA :: PHILIPPINES". CIA Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved Mar 29, 2018.
  2. ^ "Tagalog, tagailog, Tagal, Katagalugan". English, Leo James. Tagalog-English Dictionary. 1990.
  3. ^ Odal, Grace P. "Lowland Cultural Group of the Tagalogs". National Commission for Culture and the Arts.
  4. ^ Mallari, Julieta C. (2009). King Sinukwan Mythology and the Kapampangan Psyche. Universitat de Barcelona. OCLC 861047114.
  5. ^ Roberts, Edmund (1837). Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam and Muscat. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 59.
  6. ^ Scott, William Henry (1994).Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo University Press, 1994. 9715501354, 9789715501354. Page 190.
  7. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 10.
  8. ^ Scott, William Henry (1994).Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo University Press, 1994. 9715501354, 9789715501354. Page 191
  9. ^ Ocampo, Ambeth (2012). Looking Back 6: Prehistoric Philippines. Mandaluyong, Philippines: Anvil Publishing, Inc. pp. 51–56. ISBN 978-971-27-2767-2.
  10. ^ Jump up to: a b "The Laguna Copperplate Inscription Archived 2014-11-21 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed September 04, 2008.
  11. ^ Postma, Antoon (June 27, 2008). "The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary". Philippine Studies. 40 (2): 182–203.
  12. ^ Morrow, Paul (2006-07-14). "Laguna Copperplate Inscription" Archived 2008-02-05 at the Wayback Machine. Sarisari etc.
  13. ^ Scott 1984
  14. ^ Pusat Sejarah Brunei Archived 2015-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved February 07, 2009.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Sonia M. Zaide, Gregorio F. Zaide, pp. 69
  16. ^ Chinese Muslims in Malaysia, History and Development by Rosey Wang Ma
  17. ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. "First voyage round the world". Translated by J.A. Robertson. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  18. ^ "Doctrina Cristiana". Project Gutenberg.
  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Blair 1911, pp. cc=philamer, q1=blair, op2=and, op3=and, rgn=works, rgn1=author, rgn2=title, rgn3=title, idno=AFK2830.0001.003, didno=AFK2830.0001.003, view=image, seq=00000171 173–174
  20. ^ The Philippines was an autonomous Captaincy-General under the Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1521 until 1815 [1]
  21. ^ Spieker-Salazar, Marlies (1992). "A contribution to Asian Historiography : European studies of Philippines languages from the 17th to the 20th century". Archipel. 44 (1): 183–202. doi:10.3406/arch.1992.2861.
  22. ^ Juan José de Noceda, Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, Manila 2013, pg iv, Komision sa Wikang Filipino
  23. ^ Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, Manila 1860 at Google Books
  24. ^ Juan José de Noceda, Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, Manila 2013, Komision sa Wikang Filipino.
  25. ^ Cruz, H. (1906). Kun sino ang kumathâ ng̃ "Florante": kasaysayan ng̃ búhay ni Francisco Baltazar at pag-uulat nang kanyang karunung̃a't kadakilaan. Libr. "Manila Filatélico,". Retrieved January 8, 2017.
  26. ^ Borah, Eloisa Gomez (2008-02-05). "Filipinos in Unamuno's California Expedition of 1587". Amerasia Journal. 21 (3): 175–183. doi:10.17953/amer.21.3.q050756h25525n72.
  27. ^ "400th Anniversary Of Spanish Shipwreck / Rough first landing in Bay Area". SFGate. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
  28. ^ Espina, Marina E (1988-01-01). Filipinos in Louisiana. New Orleans, La.: A.F. Laborde. OCLC 19330151.
  29. ^ Guererro, Milagros; Encarnacion, Emmanuel; Villegas, Ramon (1996), "Andrés Bonifacio and the 1896 Revolution", Sulyap Kultura, 1 (2): 3–12
  30. ^ Guererro, Milagros; Schumacher, S.J., John (1998), Reform and Revolution, Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People, 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, ISBN 978-962-258-228-6
  31. ^ Guerrero, Milagros; Encarnacion, Emmanuel; Villegas, Ramon (2003), "Andrés Bonifacio and the 1896 Revolution", Sulyap Kultura, 1 (2): 3–12
  32. ^ Guerrero, Milagros; Schumacher, S.J., John (1998), Reform and Revolution, Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People, 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, ISBN 978-962-258-228-6
  33. ^ Miguel de Unamuno, "The Tagalog Hamlet" in Rizal: Contrary Essays, edited by D. Feria and P. Daroy (Manila: National Book Store, 1968).
  34. ^ Kabigting Abad, Antonio (1955). General Macario L. Sakay: Was He a Bandit or a Patriot?. J. B. Feliciano and Sons Printers-Publishers.
  35. ^ 1897 Constitution of Biak-na-Bato, Article VIII, Filipiniana.net, archived from the original on 2009-02-28, retrieved 2008-01-16
  36. ^ 1935 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Section 3, Chanrobles Law Library, retrieved 2007-12-20
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b Manuel L. Quezon III, Quezon's speech proclaiming Tagalog the basis of the National Language (PDF), quezon.ph, retrieved 2010-03-26
  38. ^ Jump up to: a b c Andrew Gonzalez (1998), "The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines" (PDF), Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5, 6): 487–488, doi:10.1080/01434639808666365, retrieved 2007-03-24.
  39. ^ 1973 Philippine Constitution, Article XV, Sections 2–3, Chanrobles Law Library, retrieved 2007-12-20
  40. ^ Gonzales, A. (1998). Language planning situation in the Philippines. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 19(5), 487–525.
  41. ^ Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. 2012. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b "Lowland Cultural Group of the Tagalogs". National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14.
  43. ^ Radio Television Malacañang. "Corazon C. Aquino, First State of the Nation Address, July 27, 1987" (Video). RTVM. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
  44. ^ "100% Pinoy: Pinoy Panghimagas". (2008-07-04). [Online video clip.] GMA News. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
  45. ^ Filipino Fried Steak – Bistek Tagalog Recipe Archived April 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ https://www.aswangproject.com/philippines-monster-islands/
  47. ^ Jump up to: a b https://www.aswangproject.com/soul-according-ethnolinguistic-groups-philippines/
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e https://www.tagaloglang.com/pangangaluluwa/
  49. ^ Jump up to: a b c http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/647988/pangangaluluwa-reviving-a-dying-custom
  50. ^ https://vanwinkles.com/11-mythical-sleep-creatures-from-around-the-world
  51. ^ https://www.aswangproject.com/laho-moon-eater/
  52. ^ http://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2019/01/22/Filipinos-astronomy-beliefs.html
  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Tacio, Henrylito D. Death Practices Philippine Style Archived 2010-01-25 at the Wayback Machine, sunstar.com, October 30, 2005
  54. ^ Jump up to: a b http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/asp/article/viewFile/3961/3606
  55. ^ Jump up to: a b c https://www.aswangproject.com/bathala/
  56. ^ https://www.aswangproject.com/beautiful-history-symbolism-philippine-tattoo-culture/
  57. ^ Leticia Ramos Shahani, Fe B. Mangahas, Jenny R. Llaguno, pp. 27, 28, 30
  58. ^ https://sites.google.com/site/philmyths/lesson-2
  59. ^ https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2018/02/26/archaeologists-find-deformed-dog-buried-near-ancient-child-in-the-philippines/#4b89765d3897
  60. ^ https://filipiknow.net/prehistoric-animals-in-the-philippines/
  61. ^ tribhanga Archived January 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  62. ^ http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-01-01-1963/Francisco%20Buddhist.pdf
  63. ^ Prehispanic Source Materials: for the study of Philippine History" (Published by New Day Publishers, Copyright 1984) Written by William Henry Scott, Page 68.
  64. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Plasencia, Juan de (1589). Customs of the Tagalogs (two relations).
  65. ^ Donoso, Isaac (2016). Boxer Codex: Edición moderna.
  66. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 28.
  67. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Felipe Pardo, archbishop of Manila (1686-1688)Carta sobre la idolatria de los naturales de la provincia de Zambales, y de los del pueblo de Santo Tomas y otros circunvecinos.
  68. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 166.
  69. ^ Asiaweek Limited, 1986. Asiaweek, Volume 12, Issues 1-13. Indiana University. Page 33.
  70. ^ Blair, Helen Emma & Robetson, James Alexander. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Cachos Hermanos, 1605. Volume 34. Page 378.
  71. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 155.
  72. ^ Jump up to: a b Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 264.
  73. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h San Buenaventura , Fr. Pedro de (1613). Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero.
  74. ^ Jump up to: a b Bowring, John (1858). A Visit to the Philippine Islands. Smith, Elder & Company, 1859. Page 158.
  75. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Colin SJ, Francisco (1663). Native races and their customs. Madrid, 1663.
  76. ^ Jump up to: a b c POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 71.
  77. ^ Jump up to: a b c Scott, William Henry (1994).Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo University Press, 1994. 9715501354, 9789715501354. Page 234
  78. ^ Noceda-Sanclucar (1754). Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala.
  79. ^ Francisco Colin (1663). Labor Evangelica
  80. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 41.
  81. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 44.
  82. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2013). Arabic and Persian Loanwords in Tagalog. Lulu.com, 2013. 1291457267, 9781291457261. Page 277.
  83. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 45.
  84. ^ Storch, Tanya (2017).Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900. Routledge, 2017. ISBN 1351904787, 9781351904780.
  85. ^ Scientific American: Supplement, Volume 51. Munn and Company, 1901. Page 21255.
  86. ^ Jump up to: a b Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 28.
  87. ^ Eugenio, Damiana L. (1993). Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths Issue 2 of Philippine folk literature series. University of the Philippines Press, 1993. ISBN 9715420192, 9789715420198. Page 254.
  88. ^ University of Manila., 1956. University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Volume 5. Page 40.
  89. ^ .University of Manila (1956). University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Volumes 5-6. Page 331.
  90. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 12.
  91. ^ San Antonio, Juan Francisco de (1738). The native peoples and their customs.
  92. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 194.
  93. ^ Reyes y Florentino, Isabelo de los. History of Ilocos, Volume 1. University of the Philippines Press, 2014. ISBN 9715427294, 9789715427296. Page 82.
  94. ^ Teh-Ming Wang. Sino-Filipino Historico-cultural Relations. University of the Philippines, 1967. Page 358.
  95. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2013). Arabic and Persian Loanwords in Tagalog. Lulu.com, 2013. 1291457267, 9781291457261. Page 391.
  96. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 200.
  97. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The Boxer Codex Manuscript 1590
  98. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 433.
  99. ^ Marsden, William (1784). The History of Sumatra: Containing An Account Of The Government, Laws, Customs And / Manners Of The Native Inhabitants. Good Press, 2019.
  100. ^ Philippine Center for Advanced Studies. Asian Studies, Volumes 21-30. Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines System., 1983. Page 26.
  101. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 22 & 30.
  102. ^ Loarca, Miguel de (1582). Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas.
  103. ^ Far Eastern University (1967). Far Eastern University Faculty Journal, Volume 12. Page 168.
  104. ^ University of Manila., 1956. University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Volume 5. p. 52
  105. ^ Teresita Alcantara y Antonio. Views on Philippine Revolution, Volume 1. University of the Philippines, 2002. Page 275.
  106. ^ Isabelo de los Reyes y Florentino. Religion of the Katipunan. National Historical Institute, 1993. ISBN 9715380522, 9789715380522. Page 3.
  107. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 128-129.
  108. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 16.
  109. ^ The Boxer Codex Manuscript c. 1590, using the English translation by Souza & Turley.
  110. ^ Jesus, Pablo de (1580). Letter to Gregory XIII .
  111. ^ Far Eastern University (1967). Far Eastern University Faculty Journal, Volume 12. Page 192.
  112. ^ Reyes y Florentino, Isabelo de los (1909). La religión antigua de los Filipinos. Manila: Impr. de el Renacimiento, 1909. Page 33-34, 113.
  113. ^ Noceda, Juan José de & Sanlucar, Pedro de (1754). Vocabulario de la lengua tagala. Page 151-152.
  114. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 27-28.
  115. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 166.
  116. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 371.
  117. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 516.
  118. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 73.
  119. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2016). Genitality in Tagalog. Lulu.com, 2016. ISBN 1326725378, 9781326725372 Page 14-15.
  120. ^ Noceda, Juan José de & Sanlucar, Pedro de (1754). Vocabulario de la lengua tagala: compuesto por varios religiosos doctos y graves, y coordinado. Ramirez y Giraudier, 1860.
  121. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 19.
  122. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 22.
  123. ^ Santiago, Luciano P. R. (2005). To Love and to Suffer: The Development of the Religious Congregations for Women in the Spanish Philippines, 1565-1898. Ateneo University Press, 2005. ISBN 9715504787, 9789715504782. Page 10.
  124. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 33.
  125. ^ Noceda, Juan de (1754). Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala. Imprenta de la compañia de Jesus, 1754. Page 82
  126. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 387.
  127. ^ Jump up to: a b c Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 29.
  128. ^ Jump up to: a b Reyes y Florentino, Isabelo de los (1909). La religión antigua de los Filipinos. Manila: Impr. de el Renacimiento, 1909. Page 114.
  129. ^ Manila. University, University of Manila (1958). University of Manila Journal Of East Asiatic Studies, Volumes 7-8. University of Manila., 1958. Page 251.
  130. ^ Jump up to: a b POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 37.
  131. ^ Gianno, Rosemary (2004). "'Women are not brave enough' Semelai male midwives in the context of Southeast Asian cultures". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 160 (1): 31–71. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003734. JSTOR 27868101.
  132. ^ Jump up to: a b Scott, William Henry (1994).Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo University Press, 1994. 9715501354, 9789715501354. Page 236
  133. ^ University of Santo Tomás (2002). Philippiniana Sacra, Volume 37, Issues 109-111. University of Santo Tomas., 2002. Page 476.
  134. ^ Guadalupe Fores- Ganzon, Luis Mañeru, Fundación Santiago (Manila, Philippines). La Solidaridad, Volume 5. Fundación Santiago, 1995. 9719165545, 9789719165545. Page 531.
  135. ^ Christina Pratt (2007). An Encyclopedia of Shamanism Volume 1, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc, 2007. ISBN 1404211403, 9781404211407. Page 55.
  136. ^ Jump up to: a b Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2016). Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates. Lulu.com, 2016. ISBN 1326615793, 9781326615796. Page 287.
  137. ^ Monier-Williams, Monier (1872). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Clarendon, 1872. Page 872.
  138. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 114.
  139. ^ San Buenaventura , Fr. Pedro de (1613). Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero. Page 361
  140. ^ University of Manila., 1956. University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Volume 5. p. 52.
  141. ^ Ortiz, Tomas (1731). Superstitions and beliefs of the Filipinos.
  142. ^ Blumentritt, Fernando (1895). Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas.
  143. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2016). Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates. Lulu.com, 2016. ISBN 1326615793, 9781326615796. Page 288.
  144. ^ Wadher, Rupesh; Dwivedi, RambabuR (2012). "Applicability and importance of Caraka′s concept of Aaturaparijnana Hetawah in understanding a patient". AYU. 33 (2): 188–192. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.105236. PMC 3611657. PMID 23559788., Quote: "Linga or Symptomatology: Linga acquires the second position in the Tri Sutra. It includes entire signs and symptoms of the diseases and health also. Only the knowledge of Hetu is not sufficient for the diagnosis of Aaturavastha. Hence Linga or the symptomatology is very useful tool in the diagnosis of a disease."
  145. ^ Thakar VJ (1982). "Diagnostic methods in ayurveda". Anc Sci Life. 1 (3): 139–45. PMC 3336683. PMID 22556480.
  146. ^ Junjarwad, Ashwini; Savalgi, Pavan; Vyas, Mahesh (2013). "Critical review on Bhaishajya Kaala (time of drug administration) in Ayurveda". AYU. 34 (1): 6–10. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.115436. PMC 3764882. PMID 24049398.
  147. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 381.
  148. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 366.
  149. ^ Donoso, Isaac (2016). Boxer Codex: Edición moderna.
  150. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2013). Arabic and Persian Loanwords in Tagalog. Lulu.com, 2013. 1291457267, 9781291457261. Page 169.
  151. ^ Manila. University, University of Manila (1958). University of Manila Journal Of East Asiatic Studies, Volumes 7-8. University of Manila., 1958. Page 305.
  152. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 525.
  153. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 46.
  154. ^ Guadalupe Fores- Ganzon, Luis Mañeru, Fundación Santiago (Manila, Philippines). La Solidaridad, Volume 6. Fundación Santiago, 1996. Page 12.
  155. ^ Bane, Theresa (2016). Encyclopedia of Giants and Humanoids in Myth, Legend and Folklore. McFarland, 2016. ISBN 1476663513, 9781476663517. Page 138.
  156. ^ Manila. University, University of Manila. University of Manila Journal Of East Asiatic Studies, Volumes 7-8. University of Manila., 1958.
  157. ^ Blumentritt, Ferdinand (1895). Diccionario mitologico de Filipinas. Madrid, 1895. Page 9.
  158. ^ Zorc, David. 1977. "The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction". Pacific Linguistics C.44. Canberra: The Australian National University.
  159. ^ Blust, Robert. 1991. "The Greater Central Philippines hypothesis". Oceanic Linguistics 30:73–129.
  160. ^ Colin, Francisco (1663). Native races and their customs. Madrid, 1663.
  161. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2016). Numbers and Units in Old Tagalog. Lulu.com, 2016. ISBN 1326613804, 9781326613808. Page 181.
  162. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 45 & 87.
  163. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 53.
  164. ^ Jump up to: a b POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 32.
  165. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 35.
  166. ^ Pambid, Nenita D. (2000). Anting-anting: o kung bakit nagtatago sa loob ng bato si bathala. University of the Philippines Press, 2000. ISBN 9715420699, 9789715420693.
  167. ^ POTET, Jean-Paul G. (2018). Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu.com, 2018. ISBN 0244348731, 9780244348731. Page 36-38.
  168. ^ Juan José de Noceda, Pedro de Sanlucar. Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, trabajado por varios sugetos doctos y graves, y últimamente añadido, corregido y coordinado. H. Roldan, 1832. Page 280.
  169. ^ Ocampo,2007
  170. ^ Reid, Anthony (2006), Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James J.; Tryon, Darrell (eds.), "Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity", The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ANU Press, pp. 333–350, ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6, retrieved 2021-06-16
Retrieved from ""