1250s

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
  • 12th century
  • 13th century
  • 14th century
Decades:
Years:
  • 1250
  • 1251
  • 1252
  • 1253
  • 1254
  • 1255
  • 1256
  • 1257
  • 1258
  • 1259
Categories:
  • Births
  • Deaths
  • By country
  • By topic
  • Establishments
  • Disestablishments

The 1250s decade ran from January 1, 1250, to December 31, 1259.

Events

1250

This section is transcluded from 1250. ( | )

By place[]

World[]
  • The world population is estimated at between 400 and 416 million individuals.
  • World climate transitions from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age.[1]
  • Medieval music: The Notre Dame school of polyphony ends.
Europe[]
  • February – After the death of Erik Eriksson on February 2, Valdemar I, who is the eldest son of Birger jarl, is elected king of Sweden, and becomes the first Swedish king of the Folkung House.
  • April 30 – King Louis IX of France is released by his Egyptian captors after paying a ransom of one million dinars and turning over the city of Damietta.
  • October 12 – A great storm shifts the mouth of the River Rother in England 12 miles (20 km) to the west; a battering series of strong storms significantly alters other coastal geography around Romney Marsh.
  • December 13 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, dies, beginning the 23-year-long "Great Interregnum". Frederick II is the last Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty; after the interregnum, the empire passes to the Habsburgs.
  • The Lombard League dissolves upon the death of its member states' nemesis, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
  • King Afonso III of Portugal captures the Algarve from the Moors, thus completing the expulsion of the Moors from Portugal.
  • Albertus Magnus isolates the element arsenic, as the 8th discovered metal. He also first uses the word "oriole" to describe a type of bird (most likely the golden oriole).
  • The Rialto Bridge in Venice (in modern-day Italy) is converted from a pontoon bridge to a permanent, raised wooden structure.
  • The Ponts Couverts fortified bridges of Strasbourg (in modern-day France) are completed.
  • Vincent of Beauvais completes his proto-encyclopedic work Speculum Maius ("Greater mirror").
  • The first of the Parlements of Ancien Régime France is established.
  • Villard de Honnecourt draws the first known image of a sawmill.
  • The first usage is made of the English word "cuckold", according to the Oxford English Dictionary.
Asia[]
  • A kurultai is called by Batu Khan in Siberia as part of maneuverings which will elect Möngke Khan as khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251.
  • Starting in this year and ending in 1275, the Muslim Shougeng Pu, likely a Persian or Arabian, serves as the Commissioner of Merchant Shipping for the Song dynasty Chinese seaport at Quanzhou, due to his effort in defeating pirates.[2]
Africa[]
  • April 6 – Battle of Fariskur: Louis IX of France is captured by Baibars' Mamluk army while he is in Egypt conducting the Seventh Crusade; he later has to ransom himself.
  • May 2 – Al-Muazzam Turanshah, Sultan of Egypt, is murdered, ending effective Ayyubid dynasty rule in the country. He is briefly succeeded by his widow, Sultana Shajar al-Durr.[3]
  • July 21 – Aybak becomes ruler of Egypt, beginning the Bahri dynasty of the Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo). After 5 days he stands down and the 6-year-old Al-Ashraf Musa is proclaimed Sultan nominally.[3]
  • The Welayta state is founded in modern-day Ethiopia.
  • In Tunis, a popular rebellion against newly arrived, wealthy and influential Andalusian refugees breaks out, and is violently put down.[4]
Oceania[]
  • Samoa frees itself from Tongan rule, which begins the Malietoa dynasty in Samoa (approximate date)

By topic[]

Markets[]
  • The Flemish town of Douai emits the first recorded redeemable annuities in medieval Europe, confirming a trend of consolidation of local public debt started in 1218, in Rheims.[5]
  • The Sienese bankers belonging to the firm known as the Gran Tavola, under the steering of the Bonsignori Brothers, become the main financiers of the Papacy.[6]

1251

This section is transcluded from 1251. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • April – The first Shepherds' Crusade, a domestic French uprising in response to events in Egypt during the Seventh Crusade, occurs.[7][8]
  • December 26 – King Alexander III of Scotland marries Margaret, daughter of King Henry III of England, precipitating a power struggle between the two monarchs.[9][10]
  • Andrew de Longjumeau, dispatched two years earlier by King Louis IX of France as an ambassador to the Mongols, meets the king in Palestine, with reports from the Mongols and Tartary; his mission is considered a failure.[11][12]
  • Mindaugas of Lithuania is baptized, in prelude to his crowning as King of Lithuania in 1253.[13]
  • Alexander Nevsky signs the first peace treaty between Kievan Rus' and Norway.[14][15][16]
  • King Conrad IV of Germany invades Italy, but fails to subdue the supporters of Pope Innocent IV.[17][18]
  • The German city of Berlin, founded some 50 years earlier, receives its city charter.[citation needed]
  • Ottokar II of Bohemia, later to become King of Bohemia, is elected Duke of Austria.[19][20]
  • The earliest known manuscript of The Proverbs of Alfred, a collection of sayings of England's Alfred the Great, is written.[21]
Asia[]

1252

This section is transcluded from 1252. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • April 6 – Saint Peter of Verona is assassinated by Carino of Balsamo.[27][28]
  • May 15 – Pope Innocent IV issues the papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes the torture of heretics in the Medieval Inquisition. Torture quickly gains widespread usage across Catholic Europe.[29][30]
  • June 1 – Alfonso X is proclaimed king of Castile and León.[31]
  • July – The settlement of Stockholm in Sweden is founded, by Birger Jarl.[32][33]
  • December 25 – Christopher I of Denmark is crowned King of Denmark, in the Lund Cathedral.[34][35]
  • The Polish land of Lebus is incorporated into the German state of Brandenburg, marking the start of Brandenburg's expansion into previously Polish areas (Neumark).[36]
  • The Lithuanian city of Klaipėda (Memel) is founded by the Teutonic Knights.[37][38]
  • The town and monastery of Orval Abbey in Belgium burn to the ground; rebuilding takes 100 years.[39]
  • Thomas Aquinas travels to the University of Paris, to begin his studies there for a master's degree.[40][41]
  • In astronomy, work begins on the recording of the Alfonsine tables.[42]
Asia[]
  • The classic Japanese text Jikkunsho is completed.[43][44]
  • The Chinese era Chunyou ends.[45]
  • The Mongols take the westernmost province of the Song Dynasty empire.[46]

1253

This section is transcluded from 1253. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • January 18 – Henry I of Cyprus dies, and is succeeded as king by his newborn son, Hugh II.
  • July 4 – William II, Count of Holland, defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
  • July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as the only King of Lithuania.
  • August 6 – King Henry III of England leads an expedition to Gascony, to repel a rumoured invasion from Castile.[47] Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, returns from Gascony to England where he allies himself with barons who oppose Henry.[48]
  • August 9 – Papal bull Solet annuere extablishes the rule of Clare of Assisi over the Poor Clares two days before her death.
  • October – Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death, due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
  • Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
  • A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
  • Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of Magna Carta.
  • Halych–Volynia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.
  • Matthew Paris completes the major part of his Chronica Majora, a chronicle of English history.
  • The upper Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, the earliest important structure of Italian Gothic architecture, is completed in Assisi, Italy.
  • Sligo Abbey is built in Sligo, Ireland.
  • The Domus Conversorum, a building and institution in London for Jews who had converted to Christianity, is established by King Henry III of England.
Asia[]
  • April 28 – Nichiren, a Japanese Buddhist monk, declares his intent to preach the Lotus Sutra and Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō as the true Buddhism, thus founding Nichiren Buddhism.
  • May – King Louis IX of France dispatches William of Rubruck from Constantinople, on a missionary journey to convert the Tatars of central and eastern Asia. Later that year, William records the first meeting between European Christians and Buddhists.
  • Hulegu's advance guard attacks the Nizari strongholds in east of Persia.
  • The Mongol Empire launches attacks on the Muslim cities of Baghdad and Cairo.
  • The Mongol Empire destroys the Dali Kingdom in modern Yunnan and incorporates the region into their empire.
  • Kublai Khan introduces the baisha xiyue song and dance suite to the music of Yunnan.
  • The Chinese era Baoyou begins in the Southern Song dynasty of China.
  • The Mongols defeat the Thai Confederacy.

1254

This section is transcluded from 1254. ( | )

By place[]

Asia[]
  • King Louis IX of France, having exhausted his funds and being needed at home, abandons the Seventh Crusade (which he had conducted first in Egypt and then Syria), and returns to France.
  • The Japanese classic text Kokin Chomonjo is completed.
  • The Mongols destroy the Kingdom of Dali, in modern Yunnan.
  • The Mongols enslave 200,000 Koreans and take them away.
Europe[]
=Northern Europe=
  • June 12 – The city of Alkmaar obtains city rights from the Count of Holland, William II.[49]
  • November 1 – Edward Plantagenet (the future Edward I of England, aged 15) marries Eleanor of Castile (aged c. 13), at the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas, Burgos. His father Henry III has demanded the marriage, in exchange for ending the war with her brother Alfonso X of Castile.
  • In England, an important step in the evolution of the Parliament and Peerage occurs as lesser barons are replaced on the King's Council by elected representatives from shires and cities.
  • Pope Innocent IV excommunicates Conrad IV of Germany and Rudolph I of Germany (who is later elected Holy Roman Emperor).
  • The Danish city of Copenhagen receives its city charter.
  • The Swedish city of Malmö is founded.
  • Danylo of Halych, prince of Halych-Wolyn Rus, is crowned a king. The kingdom of Rus (Ruthenia Minor, Halych-Wolyn) is founded.
=Southern Europe=
  • December 2 – Manfred of Sicily defeats the army of Pope Innocent IV at Foggia.
  • King Louis IX of France expels all Jews from France.
  • King Afonso III of Portugal holds the first session of the Cortes (Portugal's general assembly composed of nobles, members of the middle class, and representatives from all municipalities), in Leiria.
  • The Ghibelline town of Pistoia is taken over by Guelph Florence.
  • The Horses of Saint Mark, looted from Constantinople in 1204, are installed at Saint Mark's Basilica in Venice.
  • Battle of Adrianople: The Byzantines defeat Bulgaria.
Antarctica[]

By topic[]

Markets[]
  • As part of an offensive against usury in north-western Europe, Pope Innocent IV relieves the city of Beauvais from its obligations to its creditors.[50]
Religion[]
  • December 12 – Pope Alexander IV succeeds Pope Innocent IV, as the 181st pope.
  • Construction is begun on the Cathedral of Saint Martin in Utrecht.
  • The Catholic dogma of purgatory is clarified and so named, by the Catholic Church.

1255

This section is transcluded from 1255. ( | )

By place[]

Asia[]
  • Hulagu Khan begins his campaign to destroy the remaining Muslim states in southwestern Asia, with the main targets being the Nizari Ismaili strongholds and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
Europe[]
  • May – William of Rubruck from Constantinople returns to Cyprus from his missionary journey to convert the Tatars of central and eastern Asia, his efforts having been unsuccessful.
  • June – Battle of Bryn Derwin: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd defeats his two brothers to become sole ruler of northern Wales.[47]
  • August
    • The final Cathar stronghold in southern France falls, eliminating their last refuge, since the Roman Catholic Church began the Albigensian Crusade to crush the sect in 1209.
    • Following the death of "Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln", in an instance of blood libel, nineteen Jews of Lincoln, England, are executed by royal command on suspicion of being involved in the boy's murder.[47]
  • Lisbon becomes the capital of Portugal when King Afonso III moves his court from Coimbra.
  • A survey of royal privileges in England is conducted, which is included in the Hundred Rolls, a census seen as a follow-up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086; the Hundred Rolls is later completed with two larger surveys, in 1274/75 and 1279/80.[51]
  • Königsberg (modern-day Kaliningrad) is founded by the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, and named in honour of King Ottokar II of Bohemia.
  • Theodore II Laskaris, Byzantine Emperor (in exile in the Empire of Nicaea), conducts a military campaign to recover Thrace from the Bulgarians. He concludes the task successfully a year later, in 1256.
  • The Duchy of Bavaria is split into Upper and Lower Bavaria.
  • The lands of the House of Nassau are divided, not to be reunited until 1806.
  • King Béla IV of Hungary grants Banská Bystrica the municipal rights of a royal town.

By topic[]

Arts and culture[]
  • The Gothic cathedral at Bourges, France, is completed (it will become a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Markets[]
  • At the death of Bernardo Bonsignori, his brother Orlando is left sole director of the largest banking firm in western Europe, the Gran Tavola of Siena.[52]

1256

This section is transcluded from 1256. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • May 4 – Pope Alexander IV issues the papal bull Licet ecclesiae catholicae, constituting the Order of Saint Augustine at Lecceto Monastery.
  • August 25 – In Bologna slavery and serfdom is abolished; the event is recorded in the document called Liber Paradisus.
  • The city of Lviv, in present-day Ukraine, founded by Danylo King of Rus, is first mentioned in the written account of Chełm fire.
  • Theodore II Lascaris, Byzantine Emperor (in exile in the Empire of Nicaea), successfully concludes a military campaign started a year earlier, to recover Thrace from the Bulgarians.
  • Abingdon School is founded in England.
  • Roger Bacon becomes a Franciscan friar.
  • The Church of Santa Costanza, Rome, is consecrated.
  • The ancient Irish Kingdom of Breifne splits into East Breifne and West Breifne, after a war between the O'Reillys and the O'Rourkes.
  • The War of the Euboeote Succession begins, involving most of the lords of Frankish Greece and the Republic of Venice.
Asia[]
  • May – Mongol campaign against the Nizaris: Mongol forces capture and sack Tun (modern-day Ferdows), Persia and massacre its people.
  • June 30 – A large volcanic eruption in Harrat Rahat (near Medina) is associated with an Islamic prophecy.[53]
  • September–October – The Japanese Kenchō era ends, and the Kōgen era begins.

1257

This section is transcluded from 1257. ( | )
  • January – Lambsar Castle in Persia is destroyed by the Mongols.
  • March – The Japanese Kōgen era ends, and the Shōka era begins.
  • Spring – The Epirote–Nicaean conflict (1257–59) begins.
  • June 5 – The city of Kraków is granted Magdeburg rights by Boleslaus V of Poland, having been rebuilt after being nearly destroyed in the Tatar invasions in 1241.
  • c. September – 1257 Samalas eruption: Mount Samalas volcano erupts on Lombok Island, Indonesia. One of the largest volcanic eruptions in the past 10,000 years, it creates severe climatic changes across the globe, leading to severe famines and death, and to one of the biggest geopolitical changes across the globe over the next few centuries.[54][55]
  • The second Genoese War breaks out between Genoa and Venice in Outremer, known as the War of Saint Sabas.
  • The Mongols take Dai Viet (northern Vietnam).
  • Karelians make a campaign to Sweden. The campaign leads Swedish king Valdemar to request Pope Alexander IV to declare a crusade against Karelians, which leads to the third Swedish crusade to Finland.
  • Władysław Opolski founds the Franciscan monastery in the city of Wodzisław Śląski. Before this date Wodzisław was granted Magdeburg rights (1246–1257).
  • Louis IX of France confirms the foundation by his chaplain Robert de Sorbon of the College of Sorbonne in Paris, giving a formal college (and still-common name) to the already existing University of Paris.[56]
  • King Henry III of England orders the production of a twenty pence English coin of pure gold, the first high-denomination coin minted in England, and the first to use gold. Unfortunately, the bullion value of the coins is about 20% higher than the nominal face value, leading to poor circulation, as coins are melted down by individuals for their gold content.
  • Matthew Paris, English historian, personally interviews King Henry III of England for an entire week while compiling his major work of English history, Chronica Majora.
  • Aberdeen Grammar School is founded in Scotland.

1258

This section is transcluded from 1258. ( | )

By area[]

Global[]
  • The observed effects of the volcanic 1257 Samalas eruption in Indonesia include the following anecdotal accounts: dry fog in France; lunar eclipses in England; severe winter in Europe; a "harsh" spring in northern Iceland; famine in England, western Germany, France, and northern Italy; and pestilence in London, parts of France, Austria, Iraq, Syria, and southeast Turkey.[57]
Asia[]
  • February 10 – The Siege of Baghdad ends with a battle, in which Hulagu Khan's Mongol forces overrun Baghdad, at this time the leading center of Islamic culture and learning, and capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. They burn the imperial city to the ground, killing as many as 1,000,000 citizens including the Abbasid Caliph, and destroy the House of Wisdom, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy.
  • June 25 – War of Saint Sabas: In the Battle of Acre, the Venetians defeat a larger Genoese fleet sailing to relieve Acre.
  • The Chinese era Baoyou ends, in the Southern Song Dynasty of China.
  • Korea surrenders to the Mongol Empire, ending the effective resistance of the Choe faction within Korea.
  • Mongol invasions of Vietnam: The Mongol Empire invades the Đại Việt (present-day northern Vietnam). The Mongol army is soon defeated by the Đại Việt forces.
Europe[]
  • May 11 – The Treaty of Corbeil is signed between James I of Aragon and Louis IX of France. The French king, as the heir of Charlemagne, formally renounces his feudal overlordship over Catalonia (independent de facto since 988), while the Aragonese king renounces his claims over Occitania.
  • May/June – The Battle of Karydi ends the War of the Euboeote Succession in a crushing victory for William II of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea.
  • June 11 – The Oxford Parliament, led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, convenes, leading to the acceptance by King Henry III of England of the Provisions of Oxford.[58][59]
  • August 25 – George Mouzalon, regent of the Empire of Nicaea, is assassinated in Magnesia ad Sipylum, as part of a conspiracy led by nobles, under future emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
  • Llywelyn ap Gruffudd declares himself Prince of Wales. He is the final ruler of an independent Wales, before its conquest by the English.
  • Gissur Þorvaldsson is made Earl of Iceland, by King Haakon IV of Norway.
  • The Mongol Golden Horde attacks Lithuania.
  • Ongoing – Epirote–Nicaean conflict (1257–59).

By topic[]

Markets[]
  • In Genoa, the Republic starts imposing forced loans, known as luoghi, to its taxpayers; they are a common resource of medieval public finance.[60]
Religion[]
  • Civil unrest in northern Italy spawns the medieval musical form of Geisslerlieder, penitential songs sung by wandering bands of Flagellants.

1259

This section is transcluded from 1259. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • September – Battle of Pelagonia: The Empire of Nicaea defeats the Principality of Achaea, ensuring the eventual reconquest of Constantinople in 1261.[61][62]
  • December 4 – Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy), in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.[63]
  • The famous frescoes of the Boyana Church in Bulgaria are completed (the church and its murals are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site).[64]
  • The German cities of Lübeck, Wismar, and Rostock enter into a pact to defend against pirates of the Baltic Sea, laying the groundwork for the Hanseatic League.[65]
  • Nogai Khan leads the second Mongol Golden Horde attack against Lithuania, and Poland.[66]
  • Epirote–Nicaean conflict.[67]
Asia[]
  • August 11 – While conducting a siege against the Song Dynasty city known as Fishing Town in the province of Chongqing, China, the Mongol Great Khan, Möngke Khan, dies in the nearby hills. Persian, Chinese, and Mongol records have different accounts of how he died, including succumbing to an arrow wound received by a Chinese archer in the siege, dysentery, and even a cholera epidemic. His death sparks a succession crisis in the Mongol Empire, while his brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai soon convene their own kurultai to elect themselves as the next Khan of Khans, opening the path to a four–year-long Toluid Civil War from 1260 to 1264. In the end, Ariq Böke surrenders to Kublai.[68][69]
  • While engaged in a war with the Mongols, the Song Chinese official Li Zengbo writes in his Kozhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou is manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron-cased gunpowder bomb shells a month, dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time.[70]
  • Lannathai, a kingdom in the north of Thailand, is founded by King Mangrai.[71][72]
  • The Goryeo Kingdom in Korea surrenders to invading Mongol forces.[73]
  • The Chinese era Kaiqing begins and ends, in the Northern Song Dynasty of China.[74]
  • The Japanese Shōka era ends, and the Shōgen era begins.[75][76]

Significant people[]

Births[]

Transcluding articles: 1250, 1251, 1252, 1253, 1254, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1258, and 1259

1250

  • September – Robert II, Count of Artois
  • Guido Cavalcanti, Italian poet (d. 1300)
  • Jeanne de Montfort de Chambéon, Swiss ruler (d. 1300)
  • Dmitri of Pereslavl, Grand-duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (d. 1294)
  • Pierre Dubois, French publicist (approximate date; d. c. 1312)
  • Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of Sicily (d. 1308)
  • Moses de Leon, Spanish compiler of the Zohar (approximate date; d. 1305)
  • Giovanni Pisano, Italian sculptor (approximate date; d. 1314)
  • Asher ben Yehiel, German Jewish Talmudist (approximate date; d. 1328)
  • Esclaramunda of Foix, queen consort of Majorca as wife of King James II of Majorca (approximate date; d. 1315)

1251

1252

1253

  • March 20 – Wareru or Wagaru, born Gadu, Burmese commoner who founded the Hanthawaddy Kingdom (Pegu) (d. 1307)
  • October 17 – Ivo of Kermartin, Breton canon lawyer, priest and saint (d. 1303)
  • date unknown
  • November 25 – Katherine of England, daughter of Henry III of England
    • Amir Khusrau, Indian Sufi musician, poet and scholar (d. 1325)
    • Eschiva of Ibelin, Lady of Beirut, lady regnant (d. 1312)
  • probable

1254

  • May 13 – Marie of Brabant, Queen of France (d. 1322)
  • June 24 – Floris V, Count of Holland (d. 1296)
  • September 15 – Marco Polo, Italian explorer (d. 1324)
  • date unknown

1255

  • July – Albert I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1308)
  • October 23 – Ferdinand de la Cerda, Spanish noble (d. 1275)
  • William de Ros, 1st Baron de Ros, claimant to the crown of Scotland (d. 1317)
  • Duccio di Buoninsegna, Sienese painter (d. 1319)
  • Margherita Colonna, Italian abbess (d. 1284)
  • Grand Prince Andrey of Gorodets (approximate date; d. 1304)
  • Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg, King of the Romans (approximate date; d. 1298)

1256

  • January 6 – Gertrude the Great, German mystic
  • Robert, Count of Clermont, French founder of the House of Bourbon (d. 1317)
  • Ibn al-Banna, Moroccan Arab mathematician (d. 1321)

1257

1258

  • Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire (d. 1326)
  • Trần Nhân Tông, emperor of Vietnam (d. 1308)
  • Lady Nijō, Japanese concubine and Buddhist nun
  • probable
    • Arghun, fourth Ilkhanate ruler of Iran (d. 1291)
    • Henryk IV Probus, Duke of Wrocław (d. 1290)

1259

Deaths[]

Transcluding articles: 1250, 1251, 1252, 1253, 1254, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1258, and 1259

1250

1251

1252

1253

  • January 18 – King Henry I of Cyprus (b. 1217)
  • April 3 – Richard of Chichester, English bishop and saint (b. 1197)
  • June 11 – Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy (b. 1197)
  • July 8 – Theobald I of Navarre (b. 1201)
  • August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian saint, follower of Francis of Assisi (b. 1194)
  • September 22 – Dōgen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism (b. 1200)
  • September 23 – Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, king of Bohemia (b. c.1205)
  • October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English bishop, statesman and theologian (b. c. 1175)

1254

1255

1256

1257

  • April 28 – Shajar al-Durr, sovereign sultana of Egypt
  • May 3 – Katherine of England, third daughter and fifth child of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence (b. 1253)
  • June 4 – Duke Przemysł I of Greater Poland (b. 1220/1)
  • August 15 – Hyacinth of Poland, friar, "Apostle of the North", canonized (b. c.1185)
  • December 24 – John I, Count of Hainaut (b. 1218)

1258

1259

References[]

  1. ^ Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel; Bray, Barbara (1971). Times of Feast, Times of Famine: a History of Climate Since the Year 1000. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 0-374-52122-0. OCLC 164590.
  2. ^ According to a monograph on the maritime economy of the Song dynasty written by Jitsuzo Kuwabara (桑原騭藏, 1870–1931).
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977). From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193-1260. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780873952637.
  4. ^ de Epalza, Miguel (1999). Negotiating cultures: bilingual surrender treaties in Muslim-Crusader Spain under James the Conqueror. Brill. p. 106. ISBN 90-04-11244-8.
  5. ^ Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17565-5.
  6. ^ Catoni, Giuliano. "Bonsignori". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  7. ^ Dickson, Gary (2015). Murray, Alan V. (ed.). The Crusades to the Holy Land: The Essential Reference Guide: The Essential Reference Guide. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. pp. 217–218. ISBN 9781610697804.
  8. ^ Buc, Philippe (2015). Holy War, Martyrdom, and Terror: Christianity, Violence, and the West. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780812290974.
  9. ^ Weiler, Björn K. U. (2006). Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216-1272. Woodbridge, UK and Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer. p. 142. ISBN 9780861932801.
  10. ^ Toplis, William (1814). A Genealogical History of the English Sovereigns, from William I. to George III. inclusive, accompanied with A brief Statement of the principal Events in each Reign; Biographical notices of all the noble families connected with the royal houses; and illustrated by genealogical tables. London: Thomas Underwood. p. 16.
  11. ^ Aigle, Denise (2014). The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 47. ISBN 9789004280649.
  12. ^ Marshall, Robert (1993). Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. Berkeley, CA and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. pp. 161–162. ISBN 9780520083004.
  13. ^ Janonienė, Rūta; Račiūnaitė, Tojana; Iršėnas, Marius; Butrimas, Adomas (2015). The Lithuanian Millennium: History, Art and Culture. Vilnius, Lithuania: Vilnius Academy of Arts Press. p. 48. ISBN 9786094470974.
  14. ^ Nansen, Fridtjof (2014) [1911]. In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in Early Times. Volume 2. Translated by Arthur G. Chater. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 141. ISBN 9781108071697. |volume= has extra text (help)
  15. ^ Khodakovsky, Evgeny; Lexau, Siri Skjold (2017). Architectural Conservation and Restoration in Norway and Russia. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 9781351995658.
  16. ^ Pavloskaya, Anna (2011). CultureShock! Russia: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish International Asia. p. 86. ISBN 9789814435574.
  17. ^ Sodders, Daniel R. (2004). Kleinhenz, Christopher (ed.). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. New York and London: Routledge. p. 247. ISBN 9781135948801.
  18. ^ Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. New York and London: Routledge. p. 403. ISBN 9781317451587.
  19. ^ Teich, Mikulas (1998). Bohemia in History. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780521431552.
  20. ^ Mahoney, William (2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. p. 46. ISBN 9780313363061.
  21. ^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2010). Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire. Facts on File Library of World Literature. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9781438119069.
  22. ^ De Nicola, Bruno (2016). "The Economic Role of Mongol Women: Continuity and Transformation from Mongolia to Iran". In De Nicola, Bruno; Melville, Charles (eds.). The Mongols' Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 89. ISBN 9789004314726.
  23. ^ Overy, R. J. (2014). A History of War in 100 Battles. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 9780199390717.
  24. ^ Kang, Chae-ŏn; Kang, Jae-eun (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Paramus, NJ: Homa & Sekey Books. p. 139. ISBN 9781931907378.
  25. ^ Jong-myung, Kim (2013). "The Tripitạka Koreana: Its Computerization and Significance for the Cultural Sciences in a Modern Globalized World". In Lewis, James B.; Sesay, Amadu (eds.). Korea and Globalization: Politics, Economics and Culture. New York and London: Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 9781136859786.
  26. ^ Park, Sang-jin (2013) [2007]. "Preface: A Microscopic Look at the Secrets of the Tripitaka Koreana". Under the Microscope: The Secrets of the Tripitaka Koreana Woodblocks. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. xi. ISBN 9781443867320.
  27. ^ Prudlo, Donald (2016) [2008]. The Martyred Inquisitor: The Life and Cult of Peter of Verona (†1252). Church, Faith and Culture in the Medieval West. New York and London: Routledge. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781351885911.
  28. ^ Jump up to: a b van Braght, Thieleman J. (1837). The Bloody Theatre, Or Martyrs' Mirror, of the Defenceless Christians: Who Suffered and Were Put to Death for the Testimony of Jesus, Their Savior, from the Time of Christ Until the Year A.D. 1660. Lancaster, PA: David Miller. p. 249.
  29. ^ Tavuzzi, Michael (2007). Renaissance Inquisitors: Dominican Inquisitors and Inquisitorial Districts in Northern Italy, 1474-1527. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9789047420606.
  30. ^ Parris, David Paul (2009). Reception Theory and Biblical Hermeneutics. Princeton Theological Monograph Series. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 252. ISBN 9781630878153.
  31. ^ Carpenter, Dwayne E. (1986). Alfonso X and the Jews: An Edition of and Commentary on Siete Partidas 7.24 "De Los Judíos". Modern Philology. 115. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780520099517.
  32. ^ Hall, Thomas (2009). Stockholm: The Making of a Metropolis. London and New York: Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 9781134298594.
  33. ^ Andersson, Kjell (August 2005). "Beginning Swedish Genealogy". Ancestry Magazine. 23 (4): 44 – via Google Books.
  34. ^ Dunham, Samuel Astley (1839). History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Volume II. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longmans and John Taylor. p. 223. |volume= has extra text (help)
  35. ^ Andersen, Per (2011). Legal Procedure and Practice in Medieval Denmark. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 16. ISBN 9789004204768.
  36. ^ Menzel, Wolfgang (1862). The History of Germany: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Volume II. London: Henry G. Bohn. p. 17. |volume= has extra text (help)
  37. ^ Devenis, Keistutis P. (2002). Ancient Lithuania and the History of Deltuva. Vilnius, Lithuania: VAGA. p. 112. ISBN 9785415016297.
  38. ^ Åberg, Martin; Peterson, Martin (1997). Baltic Cities: Perspectives on Urban and Regional Change in the Baltic Sea Area. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic Press. p. 107. ISBN 9789189116030.
  39. ^ Villa, Keith (2012). Oliver, Garrett (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Beer. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 630. ISBN 9780195367133.
  40. ^ Aquinas, Thomas; Hood, John Y. B. (2002). The Essential Aquinas: Writings on Philosophy, Religion, and Society. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28. ISBN 9780275978181.
  41. ^ Davies, Brian (2016). Thomas Aquinas's Summa Contra Gentiles: A Guide and Commentary. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780190456542.
  42. ^ Chabás, José; Goldstein, B. R. (2013). The Alfonsine Tables of Toledo. Boston, MA: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 144. ISBN 9789401702133.
  43. ^ Tooley, Sarah A. (2006) [1910]. "The Women of New Japan". In Delap, Lucy; DiCenzo, Maria; Ryan, Leila (eds.). Feminism and the Periodical Press, 1900-1918. London and New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415320269.
  44. ^ Qian, Nanxiu (2001). Spirit and Self in Medieval China: The Shih-shuo Hsin-yü and Its Legacy. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. p. 453. ISBN 9780824823979.
  45. ^ Dean, Kenneth; Zheng, Zhenman (2010). Ritual Alliances of the Putian Plain. Volume Two: A Survey of Village Temples and Ritual Activities. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 15. ISBN 9789047440178. |volume= has extra text (help)
  46. ^ Jackson, Peter (2017). The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780300227284.
  47. ^ Jump up to: a b c Palmer, Alan; Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 84–86. ISBN 0-7126-5616-2.
  48. ^ Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 141–144. ISBN 0-304-35730-8.
  49. ^ Vis, G. N. M. (1994). Oud en arm: Hervormde bejaardenzorg in Alkmaar, 1744-1994. Hilversum: Verloren. p. 16. ISBN 90-6550-502-4.
  50. ^ Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
  51. ^ Cam, Helen (1921). Studies in the hundred rolls: some aspects of thirteenth-century administration. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  52. ^ Catoni, Giuliano. "Bonsignori". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  53. ^ The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review p. 40
  54. ^ Amos, Jonathan (2013-09-30). "Mystery 13th Century eruption traced to Lombok, Indonesia". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
  55. ^ Alberge, Dalya (2012-08-04). "Mass grave in London reveals how volcano caused global catastrophe". The Guardian. London.
  56. ^ "La fondation de la Sorbonne au Moyen Âge par le théologien Robert de Sorbon". La Chancellerie des Universités de Paris. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  57. ^ Stothers, R. B. (2000). "Climatic and Demographic consequences of the massive volcanic eruption of 1258". Climatic Change. 45: 361–374.
  58. ^ Stubbs, William (2012) [1913]. Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History from the Earliest Times to the Reign of Edward the First (in Latin). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN 9781108044936.
  59. ^ Brand, Paul (2003). Kings, Barons and Justices: The Making and Enforcement of Legislation in Thirteenth-Century England. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 9781139439077.
  60. ^ Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
  61. ^ David, Brewer (2011) [2010]. Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek. New York: I.B.Tauris. p. 17. ISBN 9780857730046.
  62. ^ Geanakoplos, Deno John (1984). Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen Through Contemporary Eyes. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. p. 106. ISBN 9780226284606.
  63. ^ Thackeray, Frank W.; Findling, John E. (2001). Events that Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 52. ISBN 9780313290794.
  64. ^ Marani, Enrico; Heida, Ciska (2018). Head and Neck: Morphology, Models and Function. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 167. ISBN 9783319921051.
  65. ^ Hammel-Kiesow, Rolf (2015). "The Early Hansas". In Harreld, Donald J. (ed.). A Companion to the Hanseatic League. Leiden and Boston: BRILL. p. 56. ISBN 9789004284760.
  66. ^ Sedlar, Jean W. (2013) [1994]. East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. p. 379. ISBN 9780295800646.
  67. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Volume I: ca. 3000 BCE - 1499 CE. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. p. 283. ISBN 9781851096725. |volume= has extra text (help)
  68. ^ Jump up to: a b Rossabi, Morris (2009). Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 9780520261327.
  69. ^ Kolbas, Judith (2013). The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu 1220–1309. New York and London: Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 9781136802898.
  70. ^ Andrade, Tonio (2016). The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9781400874446.
  71. ^ London, Ellen (2008). Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 9789812619761.
  72. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2012) [1996]. Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Volume 5: Asia and Oceania. New York and London: Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 9781136639791. |volume= has extra text (help)
  73. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2013). Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. p. 169. ISBN 9781133606512.
  74. ^ Mostern, Ruth (2011). "Dividing the Realm in Order to Govern": The Spatial Organization of the Song State (960-1276 CE). Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9780674056022.
  75. ^ Griffis, William Elliot (2014). The Mikado's Empire. Cambridge Library Collection. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 613. ISBN 9781108080507.
  76. ^ Adolphson, Mikael S. (2000). The Gates of Power: Monks, Courtiers, and Warriors in Premodern Japan. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. p. 398. ISBN 9780824823344.
  77. ^ Calloway, Donald H. (2016). Champions of the Rosary: The History and Heroes of a Spiritual Weapon. Stockbridge, MA: Marian Press. ISBN 9781596143937.
  78. ^ Perez, Louis G. (2013). Japan at War: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. p. 129. ISBN 9781598847413.
  79. ^ Morrell, Sachiko Kaneko; Morrell, Robert E. (2012). Zen Sanctuary of Purple Robes: Japan's Tokeiji Convent Since 1285. 2006: State University of New York Press. pp. xi. ISBN 9780791481448.CS1 maint: location (link)
  80. ^ Grillo, Paolo (2010). "Conradin". In Rogers, Clifford J. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Volume I. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 422–423. ISBN 9780195334036. |volume= has extra text (help)
  81. ^ Fritze, Ronald H. (2002). Schulman, Jana K. (ed.). The Rise of the Medieval World, 500-1300: A Biographical Dictionary. The Great Cultural Eras of the Western World. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 113–114. ISBN 9780313308178.
  82. ^ Babinger, F.; Savory, R. M. (2002). Hanif, N. (ed.). Biographical Encyclopaedia of Sufis: Central Asia and Middle East. Safi Al-Din Ardabili (1252 - 1334): Sarup & Sons. pp. 417–419. ISBN 9788176252669. 1252 Safi-ad-din Ardabili.CS1 maint: location (link)
  83. ^ Ridgeon, Lloyd (2006). Sufi Castigator: Ahmad Kasravi and the Iranian Mystical Tradition. New York and London: Routledge. p. 213. ISBN 9781134373987.
  84. ^ Wilkinson, Louise J. (2012). Eleanor de Montfort: A Rebel Countess in Medieval England. London and New York: A&C Black. p. 90. ISBN 9781441182197.
  85. ^ Maddicott, J. R. (2001) [1994]. Simon de Montfort. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 9780521376365.
  86. ^ Carvalho e Araújo, Alexandre Herculano de (1849). Historia de Portugal (in Portuguese). Lisbon, Portugal: Casa de Viuva Bertrand e Flihos. p. 73.
  87. ^ de Pinho Leal, Augusto Soares de Azevedo Barbosa (1876). Portugal Antigo e Moderno: Diccionario Geographico, Estatistico, Chorographico, Heraldico, Archeologico, Historico, Biographico E Etymologico De Todas as Cidades, Villas E Freguezias De Portugal E De Grande Numero De Aldeias ... (in Portuguese). Lisbon, Portugal: Mattos Moreira & Companhia. p. 221.
  88. ^ Russell, Eugenia (2013). Literature and Culture in Late Byzantine Thessalonica. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloosmbury. p. 159. ISBN 9781441155849.
  89. ^ Crowe, Joseph Archer; Cavalcaselle, Giovanni Battista; Jameson, Anna (2014). Early Italian Painting. Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam: Parkstone International. p. 118. ISBN 9781783103928.
  90. ^ Kurian, George Thomas (2015). A Quick Look at Christian History. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers. p. 82. ISBN 9780736953788.
  91. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 260. ISBN 9781442241466.
  92. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994) [1988]. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Bloomington, IN and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9780253209153.
  93. ^ Lacey, Gerry (1994). The Legacy of the de Lacy, Lacey, Lacy Family, 1066-1994. Midland, MI: Mashue Printing. p. 59.
  94. ^ "Frederick II | Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
  95. ^ Porteous, John (1989). "Crusader Coinage with Greek and Latin Inscriptions". In Setton, Kenneth Meyer; Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P. (eds.). A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. Volume VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 404. ISBN 9780299107444. |volume= has extra text (help)
  96. ^ Wise, Leonard F.; Hansen, Mark Hillary; Egan, E. W. (2005) [1967]. Kings, Rulers, and Statesmen. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 19. ISBN 9781402725920.
  97. ^ Wispelwey, Berend (2008). Biographical Index of the Middle Ages. Munich, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 762. ISBN 9783110914160.
  98. ^ Pryds, Darleen (2012). "Franciscan Lay Women and the Charism to Preach". In Johnson, Timothy (ed.). Franciscans and Preaching: Every Miracle from the Beginning of the World Came about Through Words. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. pp. 45–46. ISBN 9789004231290.
  99. ^ Vauchez, Andri (2005) [1988]. Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 376. ISBN 9780521619813.
  100. ^ Fischer, Dr Mary (2013). The Chronicle of Prussia by Nicolaus von Jeroschin: A History of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, 1190–1331. Crusade Texts in Translation. 20. Surrey, UK and Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 91. ISBN 9781409481942.
  101. ^ Brundage, James A. (2016). "Introduction: Henry of Livonia, The Writer and his Chronicle". In Tamm, Marek; Kaljundi, Linda; Jensen, Carsten Selch (eds.). Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. New York and London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 9781317156796.
  102. ^ Nicholas, Karen (1993). "Women as Rulers: countesses Jeanne and Marguerite of Flanders". In Vann, Theresa M. (ed.). Queens, Regents and Potentates. Cambridge and Dallas, TX: Boydell & Brewer. p. 85. ISBN 9780851156491.
  103. ^ Nicholas, David M. (2014). Medieval Flanders. Nee York and London: Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 9781317901556.
  104. ^ Korobeinikov, Dimitri (2014). Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780191017940.
  105. ^ Baumer, Christoph (2016). The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. London and New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 205. ISBN 9781838609405.
  106. ^ Colcock, Charles Jones (1959). Family of Hay. Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing. p. 186. ISBN 9781455604050.
  107. ^ Hamil, Donna (2016). May, Timothy (ed.). The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. pp. 169–170. ISBN 9781610693400. |volume= has extra text (help)
  108. ^ Nicola, Bruno De (2017). Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh and Stockport: Edinburgh University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9781474415484.
  109. ^ Setton, Kenneth M. (1985). A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East. Volume V: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East. Madison, WI and London: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 560. ISBN 9780299091446. |volume= has extra text (help)
  110. ^ Folda, Jaroslav (2005). Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre, 1187 - 1291. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 9780521835831.
  111. ^ Baldwin, Philip Bruce (2014). Pope Gregory X and the Crusades. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 1. ISBN 9781843839163.
  112. ^ Ostrowski, Donald (2002). Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 255. ISBN 9780521894104.
  113. ^ Fischer, Mary (2016) [2010]. The Chronicle of Prussia by Nicolaus von Jeroschin: A History of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, 1190–1331. New York and London: Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 9781317038405.
  114. ^ Borchardt, Karl (2016). "The Military-Religious Orders in the Crusader West". In Boas, Adrian (ed.). The Crusader World. London and New York: Routledge. p. 118. ISBN 9781317408321.
  115. ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2013). Emmerson, Richard K. (ed.). Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia. New York and London: Routledge. pp. 215–217. ISBN 9781136775192.
  116. ^ Bianchini, Janna (2012). The Queen's Hand: Power and Authority in the Reign of Berenguela of Castile. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. xi. ISBN 9780812206265.
  117. ^ Crook, David; Wilkinson, Louise J. (2015). The Growth of Royal Government Under Henry III. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer. p. 249. ISBN 9781783270675.
  118. ^ Wispelwey, Berend (2008). Biographical Index of the Middle Ages. Munich, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 837. ISBN 9783110914160.
  119. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1975). A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, edited by H. W. Hazard. Volume III: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 749. ISBN 9780299066703. |volume= has extra text (help)
  120. ^ Andersen, Per (2016). "Dating the Laws of Medieval Denmark : Studies of the Manuscripts of the Danish Church Laws". In Hundahl, Kerstin; Kjær, Lars; Lund, Niels (eds.). Denmark and Europe in the Middle Ages, c.1000–1525: Essays in Honour of Professor Michael H. Gelting. London and New York: Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 9781317152743.
  121. ^ Andersen, Per (2011). Legal Procedure and Practice in Medieval Denmark. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 16. ISBN 9789004204768.
  122. ^ Publishing, Britannica Educational (2012). Explorers of the Renaissance. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 23–26. ISBN 9781615308811.
  123. ^ Miller, Mary-Emily (1998). Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (eds.). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 206–209. ISBN 9781579580414.
  124. ^ Shadis, Miriam (2006). Schaus, Margaret (ed.). Women and Gender in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia. New York and London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 76–77. ISBN 9780415969444.
  125. ^ Jackson, Guida M. (1999). Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide. Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. pp. 64. ISBN 9781576070918. 1252 Blanche of Castile.
  126. ^ Savage, James (1808). The Librarian; Being an Account of Scarce, Valuable, and Useful English Books, Manuscript Libraries, Public Records. London: W. Savage. pp. 86. 1252 John of Basingstoke.
  127. ^ Wallace, Alfred Rayney; Ward, Adolphus William, eds. (1965) [1927]. The Cambridge History of English Literature. Volume XV: General Index. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive. p. 200. |volume= has extra text (help)
  128. ^ Bumke, Joachim (1991). Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages. Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press. pp. 480. ISBN 9780520066342. 1252 Henry I Anhalt.
  129. ^ Halbertsma, Tjalling H. F. (2015). Early Christian Remains of Inner Mongolia: Discovery, Reconstruction and Appropriation. Second Edition, Revised, Updated and Expanded. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 50. ISBN 9789004288867.
  130. ^ Twitchett, Denis C.; Franke, Herbert; Fairbank, John King (1994). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge, New Your and Oakleigh, Australia: Cambridge University Press. pp. 390–391. ISBN 9780521243315. |volume= has extra text (help)
  131. ^ Ellsberg, Robert (2016). Blessed Among Us: Day by Day with Saintly Witnesses. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780814647455.
  132. ^ Conlan, Thomas (2011). From Sovereign to Symbol: An Age of Ritual Determinism in Fourteenth Century Japan. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780199778102.
  133. ^ Nicola, Bruno De (2017). Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9781474415491.
  134. ^ "Conrad IV | king of Germany". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
  135. ^ Tanner, Heather J. (2019). Medieval Elite Women and the Exercise of Power, 1100--1400: Moving Beyond the Exceptionalist Debate. The New Middle Ages. Columbus, OH and Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 304. ISBN 9783030013462.
  136. ^ Phillips, Lawrence Barnett (1871). The Dictionary of Biographical Reference: Containing One Hundred Thousand Names, Together with a Classed Index of the Biographical Literature of Europe and America. London: S. Low, Son, & Marston. pp. 903. 1259 thomas flanders.
  137. ^ Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1843). The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Volume II. London: Longman, Brown. p. 385. |volume= has extra text (help)
  138. ^ Dunham, Samuel Astley (1839). History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. II. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longmans and John Taylor. p. 223.
  139. ^ Rosse, J. Willoughby (1877). An Index of Dates: Comprehending the Principal Facts in the Chronology and History of the World, from the Earliest to the Present Time. Volume I: A - J. London: G. Bell and Sons. p. 178. |volume= has extra text (help)
  140. ^ Park, Sang-jin (2014). Under the Microscope: The Secrets of the Tripitaka Koreana Woodblocks. Translated by Kim, Ji-hyun Philippa. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. xii. ISBN 9781443867320.
  141. ^ McKitterick, Rosamond; Abulafia, David; Fouracre, Paul; Reuter, Timothy; Allmand, C. T.; Luscombe, David Edward; Jones, Michael; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1995). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Volume V: c. 1198 - c.1300. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 460. ISBN 9780521362894. |volume= has extra text (help)
  142. ^ Power, Amanda (2017). "The Friars in Secular and Ecclesiastical Governance, 1224–c. 1259". In Robson, Michael J. P. (ed.). The English Province of the Franciscans (1224-c.1350). Leiden and Boston: BRILL. p. 36. ISBN 9789004331624.
  143. ^ Brown, Stephen F.; Flores, Juan Carlos (2018). Historical Dictionary of Medieval Philosophy and Theology. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 46. ISBN 9781538114315.
  144. ^ Jefferson, Melvin (2006). "The Conservation of Parker MSS 16 and 26 "The Chronica Majora"". In Fellows-Jensen, Gillian; Springborg, Peter (eds.). Care and Conservation of Manuscripts 9: Proceedings of the Ninth International Seminar Held at the University of Copenhagen 14th-15th April 2005. Copnehagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 69. ISBN 9788763505543.
Retrieved from ""