Calumniated Wife

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The Calumniated Wife is a motif in traditional narratives, numbered K2110.1 in Stith Thompson's Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. It entails a wife being falsely accused of, and often punished for, some crime or sin. This motif is at the centre of a number of traditional plots, being associated with tale-types 705–712 in the Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index of tale-types.[1][a]

Overview[]

The king finds a mysterious maiden in the woods. Illustration for Mary's Child.

Before the edition of Antti Aarne's first folktale classification, Svend Grundtvig developed - and later Astrid Lunding translated - a classification system for Danish folktales in comparison with other international compilations available at the time. In this preliminary system, four folktypes were grouped together based on essential characteristics: folktypes 44 Den forskudte dronning og den talende fugl, det syngende træ, det rindende vand ("The Disowned Queen and the Talking Bird, the Singing Tree, the Flowing Water"); 45A Den stumme dronning ("The Mute Queen" or "The Fairy Godmother"); 45B Født af fisk ("Born from Fish") and 46 Pigen uden hænder ("The Maiden without Hands").[3]

The mother falsely accused of giving birth to strange children is in common between tale types 706 and 707, where the woman has married the king because she has said she would give birth to marvelous children, as in The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird, Princess Belle-Etoile, Ancilotto, King of Provino, The Wicked Sisters, and The Three Little Birds.[4] A related theme appears in Aarne-Thompson type 710, where the heroine's children are stolen from her at birth, leading to the slander that she killed them, as in Mary's Child or The Lassie and Her Godmother.[5]

Stith Thompson remarked that the core narrative action of tale types ATU 705, ATU 706, ATU 707 and ATU 710 seemed so uniform as to transfer from one type to the other.[6] However, he glanced a possibility that these types may be further related to each other.[7]

In the same vein, scholar Linda Dégh suggested a common origin for tale types ATU 403 ("The Black and the White Bride"), ATU 408 ("The Three Oranges"), ATU 425 ("The Search for the Lost Husband"), ATU 706 ("The Maiden Without Hands") and ATU 707 ("The Three Golden Sons"), since "their variants cross each other constantly and because their blendings are more common than their keeping to their separate type outlines" and even influence each other.[8][b][c][d]

Tale types[]

ATU 705: Born of a Fish[]

Comparative mythologist Patrice Lajoye remarked on the similarity between the initial part of the tale type ATU 705, "Born of a Fish", with tale type ATU 303, "The Twins or Blood Brothers": a fisherman catches a fish in the sea and brings it home to his wife to eat. Through the ingestion of the fish, a miraculous gestation occurs and a child is born.[12]

Professor Stith Thompson described that the tale type involves a male pregnancy caused by the ingestion of the fish. The pregnancy is carried on the father's thigh (knee). The child born of this unusual pregnancy, a girl, is carried off by birds and raised in a nest. The maiden, now an adult, is found by a prince in the woods.[13][14] This sequence exists as its own type in the Georgian Tale Index, numbered -407***, "The Forest Girl": the girl is born from the man's ankle, and is raised on top of an oak tree or poplar by the eagle or the raven.[15]

At the end of the tale, after the maiden is expelled from the palace, she is summoned to the king's presence and narrates her tale in the form of a riddle or a story-within-a-story, by which the king recognizes her.[16] Scholar Anna Angelopoulos sees the storyline as a process of humanization for the heroine of the tale, albeit with participation of an evil female character (the king's stepmother).[17]

Mythological parallels[]

The unusual circumstances of the heroine's birth from a male body part are noted to resemble the births of Athena and Dionysus of Greek mythology.[18]

When analysing an Egyptian variant, The Falcon's Daughter, scholar Hasan M. El-Shamy saw that "basic parts" of the tale type found resonance with Ancient Egyptian religion: the falcon represented solar deity Horus, and the maiden on the tree Hathor, a deity with solar traits "believed to dwell in a holy sun tree" (the sycamore).[19][20][21][22][23][e]

ATU 706: The Maiden Without Hands[]

This tale type is also known in folkloristics as belonging to the Constance-cycle.[25]

Origins[]

The tale's origins, according to the historical-geographical study of Alexander H. Krappe, point to Eastern Europe;[26] more precisely, the tale is "a migratory legend of Oriental, i. e. Byzantine, origin".[27] On a similar note, scholar Jack Zipes stated that motifs of Helene de Constantinopla (including incest and bodily harm to the heroine) "stem from Byzantine and Greek tales and medieval legends".[28]

An early version of the tale type is said to be found in the compilation of The Arabian Nights.[29] Versions of the tale were also known in medieval European literature since the 13th century,[30] such as Manékine and Roman de la belle Hèlene de Constantinople, from the 13th century.[31] Another predecessor of the tale type is the Life of King Offa, a European mediaeval tale that also shows that Offa's future wife has escaped an attempted incest by her father - a motif close to Donkeyskin and variants.[32]

Distribution[]

Scholar Jack Haney stated that the tale type is "widely distributed throughout Europe".[33] Likewise, researcher Theo Meder also stated that the tale can be found in the Middle East, in Africa, in India and in the Far East.[34]

According to Barbara Hillers, tale type 706 also appears in Ireland and Scotland: "over a hundred [variants]" are reported in the Irish Catalogue (among them, 46 from Kerry and 23 from Galway), whereas nine are reported from Scotland (as per an unpublished Catalogue of Scottish Folktales).[35]

The tale type is also present in "the Russian tale corpus", with the name "Безручка" ("[The Girl] Without Hands").[36] A preliminary analysis by scholar Jack Haney points to 44 variants in Russia.[37] A further analysis by Russian scholarship shows 50 variants, some contaminated with tale type 707.[38]

Researcher Hélène Bernier, in her 1971 book about the tale type, listed 48 variants in France, 30 in Canada (18 in Québec and 12 in the Provinces Maritimes), and 5 in the United States.[39] She concluded that the Franco-Canadian versions were derived from oral versions of Brittany.[40]

Folklorist  [lt] reported 33 Lithuanian variants in his 1936 publication, under the title Moteris nukirstomis rankomis.[41]

Romanian folklorist Corneliu Barbulescu tabulated 21 Romanian variants (9 from Transylvania, 5 from Western Moldavia, and 7 from Wallachia), and 4 Macedo-Romanian variants.[42]

Japanese scholar Kunio Yanagita listed some variants of The Girl Without Hands (手なし娘; Tenashi musume) found in Japan.[43][f] Scholar Seki Keigo reported 33 variants in Japan, and suggested a recent importation of the type into his country, since he found no ancient literary version.[45]

Korean scholarship reports variants of the tale type in Korea, with the name 손 없는 색시 ("Bride With no Hands").[46]

One variant of the tale type, with the title The Girl with No Hands, was collected from a Daghur source.[47]

Professor Charles R. Bawden provided the summary of a Mongolian variant titled The Orphan Girl: a man remarries a rich woman, who gives birth to a son and becomes jealous of her step-daughter. So she lies to her husband that she has given birth to a litter of mice. He orders two servants to kill his daughter and bring him her right hand, but they cut off her hand and let her live. The girl is found by a boy, who marries her in secret. She gives birth to his son while he is away, but her step-mother strikes again: she falsifies a letter to tell the boy she has given birth to a monster. The girl escapes with her son; her hand is miraculously returned and she finds shelter with a beggar. At the end of the tale, her husband finds her and the family reunites.[48]

Variants have also been found in Africa.[49] For instance, Africanist Sigrid Schmidt asserted that the tale type 706, as well as types 707, Three Golden Children, and 510, Cinderella, "found a home in Southern Africa for many generations".[50]

A line of scholarship argues for the existence of the tale type among Arctic peoples (i.e., Inuit), related to a legend about the origin of marine animal life.[51]

Analysis[]

Professor Jack Zipes states that the motif of the mutilation of a woman harks back to Antiquity, and the mutilation of a daughter by a father occurs in tales about incest.[52] As such, remark scholars Anne Duggan and D. L. Ashliman, in many variants of type ATU 706 the heroine is mutilated because she refuses her father's sexual advances.[53]

The female protagonist may lose her hands at the beginning of the story, but regains them due to the divine intervention of a holy character, such as the Virgin Mary.[54] After the handless maiden is found by the prince/king and marries him, she is pregnant with child or with twins, but her wicked mother-in-law writes her son his wife gave birth to a monster or to animals. She is then banished to the forest with her sons.[55]

According to scholar Denise Paulme, European versions of the tale type deal with the motif of the mother accused of giving birth to a monster; in African variants, the main theme involves the wrongdoings of a jealous co-wife.[56] This view is also supported by S. Ruelland, who published a study of 19 African variants of the tale type, most of which contained the rivalry between cowives.[57]

Combinations[]

Professor Linda Dégh stated that, due to the proximity of the tales, some versions of ATU 707, "The Three Golden Children", merge with episodes of type ATU 706, "The Maiden Without Hands".[58] In the same vein, scholar Andreas John stated that type 706, in the East Slavic classification, was "clearly related" to type 707, since the maiden loses her arm up to the elbow, and the wonderful children show golden color in their arms up to the elbow.[59]

According to Hungarian ethnographer Ákos Dömötor, tale type 706, "A kalapvári kisasszony", and 510B, "Csonkakezű lány", are a "well-known" combination in the Hungarian tale corpus.[60]

ATU 707: The Three Golden Children[]

Ethnologist Verrier Elwin commented that the motif of jealous queens, instead of jealous sisters, is present in a polygamous context: the queens replace the youngest queen's child (children) with animals or objects and accuse the woman of infidelity. The queen is then banished and forced to work in a humiliating job. As for the fate of the children, they are either buried and become trees or are cast in the water (river, stream).[61]

In the same vein, French ethnologue Paul Ottino (fr) noted that the motif of casting the children in the water vaguely resembles the Biblical story of Moses, but, in these stories, the children are cast in a box in order to perish in the dangerous waters.[62] In addition, by analysing similar tales from Madagascar, he concluded that the jealousy of the older co-wives of the polygamous marriage motivate their attempt on the children, and, after the children are restored, the co-wives are duly punished, paving the way for a monogamous family unit with the expelled queen.[63]

According to Daniel Aranda, the tale type develops the narrative in two eras: the tale of the calumniated wife as the first; and the adventures of the children as the second, wherein the mother becomes the object of their quest.[64]

ATU 708: The Wonder Child[]

In this tale type, the heroine gives birth to a child with monstrous appearance. The birth of the monster is due to an enchantment.[65]

According to the French folktale catalogue of Paul Delarue and Marie-Louise Theneze, tale type ATU 708 is less attested than type 707, but most of its variants are attested in Brittany.[66]

ATU 709: Snow White[]

Distribution[]

This tale type is widespread in Europe, in America, in Africa and "in some Turkic traditions".[67] A primary analysis by Celtic folklorist Alfred Nutt, in the 19th century, established the tale type, in Europe, was distributed "from the Balkan peninsula to Iceland, and from Russia to Catalonia", with the highest number of variants being found in Germany and Italy.[68]

In regards to the Turkic distribution of the tale, parallels are also said to exist in Central Asia and Eastern Siberia, among the Mongolians and Tungusian peoples.[69]

Studies by Sigrid Schmidt and Hasan El-Shamy point to the presence of the tale type across the African continent (North, West, Central, East and Southeast), often combined with other tale types.[70]

Combinations[]

According to scholarship, the tale type ATU 709, "Snow White", appears combined or contaminated with closely related tales ATU 706, "The Maiden Without Hands" and ATU 707, "The Three Golden Children", and even ATU 451, "The Maiden who Seeks her Brothers" (or "The Seven Ravens") and ATU 480, "The Kind and Unkind Girls".[71] The tale also merges with other tales of the "Persecuted Heroine" genre, a subcategory of tales postulated by scholar Steve Swann Jones.[a][72]

ATU 710: Our Lady's Child[]

The Virgin Mary halts the queen's execution by bringing the maiden's children.

In this tale type, a poor peasant couple give their daughter to the Virgin Mary (in more religious variants) or to a kind fairy. When the girl is under the tutelage of the magical or religious character, the girl's curiosity impels her to take a gander inside a forbidden chamber, against her benefactor's wishes. Her godmother discovers the child's disobedience and expels her to the forest, where she is found by a king.[73]

In the second part of the tale, when the girl is found by the prince or king, she cannot utter a single word, either because she has made a vow of silence or because the shock of her experience with her caretaker has left her mute. Under this lens, the tale type shares similarities with ATU 451, "The Maiden Who Seeks her Brothers" (e.g., The Six Swans), wherein the heroine must promise to not say a word for a specific period of time as part of a spell to save her transformed brothers.[74]

Scholarship suggests that the ambivalent character of the Virgin Mary, "both as a guardian and a merciless punisher of a girl", may be due to Christian influence, which superimposed Christian imagery onto the role previously held by fairies and other supernatural beings.[75]

In some Slavic variants, the role of the Virgin Mary is taken by a character named Jezibaba, a variation on Baba Yaga, the witch of Slavic folklore.[76]

ATU 711: The Beautiful and the Ugly Twin Sisters[]

ATU 712: Crescentia[]

The story shows an Eastern origin, with ancient literature attesting the episode, such as the Book of Daniel and the Ramayana.[77] The theme has also inspired tales and novellas about women's fidelity and chastity in the Middle Ages, in highly fictionalized accounts of historical personages, such as Bertrada, Charlemagne's mother. Other tales involve fictional queens and empresses.[78]

In this tale type, the king's wife is accused of infidelity and abandoned in the woods (with her sons, in some variants). She receives a magical plant of gift from the Virgin Mary and uses it to heal people. Her husband finds her and they both reconcile.[79]

Scholar Ulrich Marzolph points that the tale type ATU 712 is often connected with tale ATU 881, "Oft-Proved Fidelity".[80] In addition, the tale type is also connected to tale ATU 883A, "The Innocent Slandered Maiden",[81] one of "the most frequent tale types" in Turkey,[82] being also found in Greece, Turkestan, Palestine, Egypt and the Balkans.[83]

Related tales[]

ATU 713: The Mother who did not Bear me, but Nourished me[]

French folklorist Paul Delarue drew attention to a series of tales he dubbed La mère qui ne m'a pas porté, mais m'a nourri ("The Mother who did not Bear me, but Nourished me") and classified as type ATU 713 in the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index. This type, as analysed by Delarue and Nicole Belmont, contains similarities to ATU 706 and ATU 708, wherein the heroine is expelled from home or from her village with her child.[84][g]

According to scholarship, the tale type is predominantly French, since most of the known variants have been collected in Nivernais by Achille Millien and three come from Occitanie.[86][h] The heroine in some of the variants is called Brigite or a variation thereof,[88] which hints at a connection to the legend of Irish Saint Brigid.[89]

ATU 706D: St. Wilgefortis and her Beard[]

A related tale to this cycle of stories is type ATU 706D, "St. Wilgefortis and her Beard". In some variants, the protagonist is a male musician who plays to an image of the saint and receives a golden shoe as reward.[90] The tale also appears as Die heilige Frau Kummernis (de) or as the legend of Saint Solicitous.

Studies[]

  • Aarne, Antti; Thompson, Stith. The types of the folktale: a classification and bibliography. Folklore Fellows Communications FFC no. 184. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1961. pp. 240–248.
  • Bacchilega, Cristina. "An Introduction to the "Innocent Persecuted Heroine" Fairy Tale".In: Western Folklore 52, no. 1 (1993): 1–12. Accessed April 13, 2021. doi:10.2307/1499490.
  • Bawden, C. R., 'The Theme of the Calumniated Wife in Mongolian Popular Literature', Folklore, 74 (1963), 488-97 doi:10.1080/0015587X.1963.9716922
  • Dan, Ilana. "The Innocent Persecuted Heroine: An Attempt at a Model for the Surface Level of the Narrative Structure of the Female Fairy Tale". In: Patterns in Oral Literature. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 1977. pp. 13–30. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110810028.13
  • Jonathan Stavsky, '“Gode in all thynge”: The Erle of Tolous, Susanna and the Elders, and Other Narratives of Righteous Women on Trial', Anglia, 131 (2013), 538–61.
  • Jones, Steven Swann. "The Innocent Persecuted Heroine Genre: An Analysis of Its Structure and Themes". In: Western Folklore 52, no. 1 (1993): 13–41. doi:10.2307/1499491.
  • Krappe, Alexander Haggerty. "The Offa-Constance Legend". In: Anglia 61, no. Jahresband (1937): 361–369. https://doi.org/10.1515/angl.1937.1937.61.361
  • Orazio, Veronica. "La fanciulla perseguitata: motivo folclorico a struttura iterativa”. In: Anaforá. Forme della ripetizione, a cura di I. Paccagnella et al.. Padova: Esedra. 2011. pp. 77–97
  • Pephánes, Giórgios P. "Διακειμενικά και ανθρωπολογικά στοιχεία στην Ευγένα του Θεόδωρου Μοντσελέζε". In: Ελληνικά: φιλολογικό, ιστορικό και λαογραφικό περιοδικό σύγγραμμα. Vol.54, No.2, 2004, pp. 273–309.
  • Schlauch, Margaret. Chaucer's Constance and Accused Queens. New York: New York University, 1927. Repr. New York: AMS, 1973. ISBN 9780404056049
  • Wood, Juliette, 'The Calumniated Wife in Medieval Welsh Literature', Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies, 10 (1985), 25–38.
  • Zipes, Jack. "The Tales of Innocent Persecuted Heroines and Their Neglected Female Storytellers and Collectors". In: The Irresistible Fairy Tale: The Cultural and Social History of a Genre. Princeton, New Jersey; Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press, 2012. pp. 80–108. Accessed April 16, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7sknm.10.

Footnotes[]

  1. ^ a b Scholar Steven Swann postulated that these tales are part of a larger block of stories that he called "The Innocent Persecuted Heroine". Other tales types he included in this group, belonging to the section of "Tales of Magic", are AT 310, "Rapunzel"; AT 403, “The Black and White Bride”; AT 410, “Sleeping Beauty”; AT 437, “The Supplanted Bride (The Neddle Prince)”, AT 450, "Little Brother and Little Sister”; AT 480, “The Kind and Unkind Girls”; AT 500, “Rumpelstiltskin”; AT 510A, “Cinderella”; AT 510B, “Cap o’Rushes”; AT 511, “One-Eye, Two-Eyes, Three-Eyes” (the last three grouped together due to their close relations); and AT 533, “The Speaking Horsehead (Falada)”. Apart from this selection, the following types are highlighted among the "Realistic Tales" as belonging to this classification: AT 870, "The Princess Confined in the Mound"; AT 870A, "The Little Goose-Girl"; AT 883A, "The Innocent Slandered Maiden" and AT 923, "Love Like Salt (King Lear)".[2]
  2. ^ On a related note, Stith Thompson commented that the episode of the heroine bribing the false bride for three nights with her husband occurs in variants of types ATU 425 and ATU 408.[9]
  3. ^ For instance, professor Michael Meraklis commented that despite the general stability of tale type AaTh 403A in Greek variants, the tale sometimes appeared mixed up with tale type AaTh 408, "The Girl in the Citrus Fruit".[10]
  4. ^ Scholar Tamar Alexander noted that in some variants of Cinderella, the heroine's beautification results in her producing pearls and leaving strips of gold and silver with every step - according to her, a "parallel" that appears with the wonder children in type 707: "the boy with a silver star on the brow and a girl whose bathwater turns to gold".[11]
  5. ^ However, an opposite view is held by Nils Billing, who states that sarcophagus iconography depicts Hathor in a garden or surrounded by trees, not as a tree.[24]
  6. ^ Professor Yanagita mentioned this was one of the tales speculated to have been imported into Japan, and even remarked that "everything" of the Japanese variant "[can be] found in foreign lands".[44]
  7. ^ "Je propose de lui attribuer, au voisinage des contes-types de la serie «the banished wife or maiden» ..." [I propose to attribute it [number 713], next to the series "the banished wife or maiden" ...][85]
  8. ^ Another 5 French variants exist, from Southwestern France and Hérault, and one from Mallorca.[87]

References[]

  1. ^ Raynaud, Jean. "Macario: une version franco-italienne de la Chanson de la Reine Sébile". In: Bulletin de l'Association d'étude sur l'humanisme, la réforme et la renaissance, n°19, 1984. p. 76. www.persee.fr/doc/rhren_0181-6799_1984_num_19_1_1444
  2. ^ Jones, Steven Swann. "The Innocent Persecuted Heroine Genre: An Analysis of Its Structure and Themes". In: Western Folklore 52, no. 1 (1993): 14-15. doi:10.2307/1499491.
  3. ^ Lunding, Astrid. "The System of Tales in the Folklore Collection of Copenhagen". In: Folklore Fellows Communications (FFC) nº 2. 1910. pp. 17-18.
  4. ^ Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p 121-2, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  5. ^ Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p 122-3, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  6. ^ "The main action of the four tales which we have just examined—the discovery of the persecuted maiden in the woods or a tree, her marriage to the king, the slander concerning the birth of her children, the loss of the children, the abandonment of the queen, the eventual discovery of the truth, and the reunion of the family—is so uniform that there has been much transfer from one tale to the other". Thompson, Stith (1977). The Folktale. University of California Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-520-03537-2
  7. ^ "...if, indeed, they are all essentially different stories." Thompson, Stith (1977). The Folktale. University of California Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-520-03537-2
  8. ^ Dégh, Linda. Narratives in Society: A Performer-Centered Study of Narration. FF Communications 255. Pieksämäki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, 1995. p. 41.
  9. ^ Thompson, Stith (1977). The Folktale. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-520-03537-2
  10. ^ Merakles, Michales G. Studien zum griechischen Märchen. Eingeleitet, übers, und bearb. von Walter Puchner. (Raabser Märchen-Reihe, Bd. 9. Wien: Österr. Museum für Volkskunde, 1992. p. 144. ISBN 3-900359-52-0.
  11. ^ Alexander, Tamar. The Heart is a Mirror: The Sephardic Folktale. Raphael Patai series in Jewish folklore and anthropology. Wayne State University Press, 2008. pp. 366-367. ISBN 9780814329719.
  12. ^ Lajoye, Patrice. "La conception du héros par ingestion. Un essai de typologie des versions eurasiatiques". In: Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée. numéro 5, 2019-2020. p. 10.
  13. ^ Thompson, Stith (1977). The Folktale. University of California Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-520-03537-2.
  14. ^ Angelopoulos, Anna. "Les comptines à caractère énigmatique dans le conte de tradition orale". In: Estudis de Literatura Oral Popular [Studies in Oral Folk Literature]. [En línia], 2013, Núm. 2, p. 13. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ELOP/article/view/271800 [Consulta: 13-03-2021].
  15. ^ Kʻurdovaniże, Tʻeimuraz et al. The index of Georgian folktale plot types: systematic directory, according to the system of Aarne - Thompson. Tbilisi: Merani, 2000. pp. 39-40.
  16. ^ Angelopoulos, Anna and Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. "Greek Magic Tales: aspects of research in Folklore Studies and Anthropology". In: FF Network. 2013; Vol. 43. p. 15.
  17. ^ Angelopoulos, Anna. "Les comptines à caractère énigmatique dans le conte de tradition orale". In: Estudis de Literatura Oral Popular [Studies in Oral Folk Literature]. [En línia], 2013, Núm. 2, pp. 13-15. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ELOP/article/view/271800 [Consulta: 13-03-2021].
  18. ^ Angelopoulos, Anna. "Les comptines à caractère énigmatique dans le conte de tradition orale". In: Estudis de Literatura Oral Popular [Studies in Oral Folk Literature]. [En línia], 2013, Núm. 2, p. 13. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ELOP/article/view/271800 [Consulta: 13-03-2021].
  19. ^ Dorson, Richard M. Folktales told around the world. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press. 1978. p. 159. ISBN 0-226-15874-8.
  20. ^ Buhl, Marie-Louise. "The Goddesses of the Egyptian Tree Cult". In: Journal of Near Eastern Studies 6, no. 2 (1947): 80, 86. Accessed April 17, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/542585.
  21. ^ "Amongst the ancient Egyptians (...), trees were enthusiastically worshipped (...) as the homes of various divinities. The splendid green sycamores (...) were accounted divine and earnestly worshipped by Egyptians of every rank, (...) The most famous of these sycamores—the sycamore of the South—was regarded as the living body of Hāthor upon earth; ..." Philpot, Mrs. J. H. (1897). The Sacred Tree; or the tree in religion and myth. London: MacMillan & Co. pp. 9-10.
  22. ^ "[Hathor] furthermore absorbed into herself tree goddesses. In particular Hathor took possession of an old Memphite tree cult (a sycamore near that city on the desert fringe of the cultivated land was thought to be occupied by a benevolent goddess) under the name 'Lady of the (Southern) Sycamore'." Maier, Walter A. "Appendix C: Hathor". In: ᵓAšerah: Extrabiblical Evidence. Harvard Semitic Monographs, Volume 37. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986. p. 218. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004369436_017
  23. ^ "In the Old Kingdom, Hathor was also identified with the tree-goddess: for instance, in the Hathor cults at Memphis she was called 'The Mistress of the Southern Sycamore'. It seems that Hathor was originally taken not for a cow, but for a tree-goddess." Yakar, Jak. "The Twin Shrines of Beycesultan." Anatolian Studies 24 (1974): 158. Accessed May 7, 2021. doi:10.2307/3642606.
  24. ^ Billing, Nils. "Writing an Image – The Formulation of the Tree Goddess Motif in the Book of the Dead, Ch. 59".In: Studien Zur Altägyptischen Kultur 32 (2004): 42-43. Accessed May 7, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25152905.
  25. ^ Leek, Thomas. "On the Question of Orality behind Medieval Romance: The Example of the "Constance" Group". In: Folklore 123, no. 3 (2012): 293-309. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41721561.
  26. ^ Leek, Thomas. "On the Question of Orality behind Medieval Romance: The Example of the "Constance" Group". In: Folklore 123, no. 3 (2012): 293-309. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41721561.
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  28. ^ Pitrè, Giuseppe; Zipes, Jack David; Russo, Joseph. The collected Sicilian folk and fairy tales of Giuseppe Pitrè. New York: Routledge, 2013 [2009]. p. 847. ISBN 9781136094347.
  29. ^ Haney, Jack V. The Complete Folktales of A. N. Afanas'ev. Volume II: Black Art and the Neo-Ancestral Impulse. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. 2015. pp. 536-556. muse.jhu.edu/book/42506.
  30. ^ Marzolph, Ulrich; van Leewen, Richard. The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. Vol. I. California: ABC-Clio. 2004. p. 452. ISBN 1-85109-640-X (e-book).
  31. ^ Trinquet, Charlotte. Le conte de fées français (1690-1700): Traditions italiennes et origines aristocratiques. Narr Verlag. 2012. p. 216. ISBN 978-3-8233-6692-8.
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Further reading[]

General:

The Maiden Without Hands:

  • Barbulescu, Corneliu. "The Maiden Without Hands: AT 706 in Romanian Folklore (1962)". In: Dégh, Linda. Studies In East European Folk Narrative. [s.l.]: American Folklore Society, 1978. pp. 319–365.
  • Dundes, Alan (1987). "The Psychoanalytic Study of the Grimms' Tales with Special Reference to “The Maiden Without Hands” (AT 706)". In: The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory 62:2, pp. 50-65. DOI: 10.1080/00168890.1987.9934192
  • Gehrts, Heino. "Das Mädchen ohne Hände - Ein Märchen ohne Inzest". In: Märchenspiegel. Zeitschrift für internationale Märchenforschung und Märchenpflege (1995), H. 4, 13–15.
  • Jolicoeur, Catherine. (1971). "Compte rendu de [BERNIER, Hélène. La fille aux mains coupées (conte-type 706). Québec, Les Presses de l’Université Laval, 1971, xii-192 p., 3 cartes, 1 schéma, 7 1/2 x 9 1/2 broché, (« Les Archives de Folklore » no 12) $10.00]. In: Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, 25(3), 411. https://doi.org/10.7202/303100ar
  • Lincoln, J. N. "The Legend of the Handless Maiden".In: Hispanic Review 4, no. 3 (1936): 277–80. Accessed April 15, 2021. doi:10.2307/469919.
  • Raufman, Ravit. "The Affinity between Incest and Women's Mutilation in the Feminine Druze Versions of “The Maiden without Hands”: An International Motif in a Local Context". In: Marvels & Tales 32, no. 2 (2018): 265–95. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13110/marvelstales.32.2.0265.

Our Lady's Child:

  • Belmont, Nicole. "Vertu de discrétion et aveu de la faute: A propos de la christianisation du conte type 710". In: L'Homme, 1988, tome 28 n°106-107. Le mythe et ses métamorphoses. pp. 226–236. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/hom.1988.368980]; www.persee.fr/doc/hom_0439-4216_1988_num_28_106_368980
  • Gehrts, Heino (de). "Das Marienkind - war's wirklich im Unrecht?". In: Märchenspiegel, 8 (1997), 2, 33–36.
  • Lacroix, B. (1973). "Compte rendu de [SCHMITZ, Nancy. La Mensongère (conte-type 710). Les Archives de Folklore, 14, Les Presses de l’Université Laval, Québec, 1972. Préface de Marie-Louise Tenèze. 310 p., graphiques et cartes (12). $12.00.]. In: Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, 27(3), 439–440. https://doi.org/10.7202/303296ar

Crescentia:

  • Marzolph, Ulrich. "Crescentia's Oriental Relatives: The "Tale of the Pious Man and His Chaste Wife" in the "Arabian Nights" and the Sources of Crescentia in Near Eastern Narrative Tradition". In: Marvels & Tales 22, no. 2 (2008): 240–58. Accessed April 16, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41388877.

Related tales:

  • Belmont, Nicole. "Du bon usage des motifs légendaires. A propos du conte-type 713". In: Estudis de Literatura Oral Popular [Studies in Oral Folk Literature] Núm. 8, 2019, pp. 11–23. ISSN 2014-7996.
  • Hansen, William. "The Protagonist on the Pyre Herodotean Legend and Modern Folktale". In: Fabula 37, 3-4 (1996): 272–285. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/fabl.1996.37.3-4.272
  • Laurent, Donatien. "Brigitte, accoucheuse de la Vierge. Présentation d'un dossier". In: Le Monde alpin et rhodanien. Revue régionale d'ethnologie, n°1-4/1982. Croyances, récits & pratiques de tradition. Mélanges d'ethnologie, d'Histoire et de Linguistique en hommage à Charles Joisten (1936-1981). pp. 73–79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/mar.1982.1143; www.persee.fr/doc/mar_0758-4431_1982_num_10_1_1143

External links[]

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