Climate change and cities

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Climate change and cities are deeply connected. Cites are one of the greatest contributors and likely best opportunities for addressing climate change.[1] Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the effects of climate change,[2] and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the environmental impact of humans.[1][2] More than half of the world's population is in cities, consuming a large portion of food and goods produced outside of cities.[3] Hence, cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions.[3] Moreover, because of processes that create and climate refugees, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and concentrating more impoverished peoples in cities.[4][5]

Because of the high density and effects like the urban heat island effect, weather changes due to climate change are likely to greatly effect cities, exacerbating existing problems, such as air pollution, water scarcity[6] and heat illness in the metropolitan areas. Moreover, because most cities have been built on rivers or coastal areas, cities are frequently vulnerable to the subsequent effects of sea level rise, which cause coastal flooding and erosion , and those effects are deeply connected with other urban environmental problems, like subsidence and aquifer depletion.

A report by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group described consumption based emissions as having significantly more impact than production-based emissions within cities. The report estimates that 85% of the emissions associated with goods within a city is generated outside of that city.[7] Climate change adaptation and mitigation investments in cities will be important in reducing the impacts of some of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions: for example, increased density allows for redistribution of land use for agriculture and reforestation, improving transportation efficiencies, and greening construction (largely due to cement's outsized role in climate change and improvements in sustainable construction practices and weatherization). Lists of high impact climate change solutions tend to include city-focused solutions; for example, Project Drawdown recommends several major urban investments, including improved bicycle infrastructure,[8] building retrofitting,[9] district heating,[10] public transit,[11] and walkable cities as important solutions.[12]

Because of this, the international community has formed coalitions of cities (such as the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group and ICLEI) and policy goals, such as Sustainable Development Goal 11 ("sustainable cities and communities"), to activate and focus attention on these solutions.

Field of study[]

The research perspective of cities and climate change, started in the 1990s as the international community became increasingly aware of the potential impacts of climate change.[13] Urban studies scholars Michael Hebbert and Vladmir Jankovic argue that this field of research grew out of a larger body of research on the effects of urban development and living on the environment starting as early as the 1950s.[13] Since then, research has indicated relationships between climate change and sustainable urbanization: increase employment cities reduces poverty and increases efficiencies.[14]

Two international assessments have been published by the at The Earth Institute at Columbia University.[15] The first of which was published in, the first of which (ARC3.1) was published in 2011,[16] and the second of which (ARC3.2) was published in 2018.[15] These papers act as summaries of the scholarship for the field similar to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports. A third report is being developed as of 2020.[17]

Cities as laboratories[]

Cities are good subjects for study because they can invest heavily in large-scale experimental policies that could be scaled elsewhere (such as San Diego's advanced urban planning practices which could be applied elsewhere in the United States).[18][19] Multiple scholars approach this in different ways, but describe this "urban laboratory" environment for testing a wide variety of practices.[20][19] for example the book documents a number of cities which act as "urban climate innovation laboratories".[21]

Regional and national differences[]

Cities in different parts of the world face different, unique challenges and opportunities in the face of climate change. However, one linking factor is their inevitable adherence to "Dominant global patterns of urbanization and industrialization" which often catalyzes "large-scale modification of the drivers for hydrologic and biogeochemical processes".[22] Urbanization and industrialization patterns are particularly evident for regions such as Asia, Africa, and South America, regions that are currently understood as experiencing related rapid shifts in population and economic prowess.[22]

Africa[]

Africa is urbanizing faster than any other continent.[23] It is estimated that by 2030, more than one billion Africans will live in cities.[24] This rapid urbanization, coupled with the many interlinked and complex challenges as a result of climate change, pose a significant barrier to Africa's sustainable development.[25] Much of this Urban Development is informal, with urban residents settling in informal settlements and slums often on the outskirts of cities.[26] This phenomena poses lower income countries, many in Africa, as being ideal candidates for increases in infrastructural sustainability. A recent study found that in "countries with per capita incomes of below USD 15,000 per year (at PPP-adjusted 2011 USD) carbon pricing has, on average, progressive distributional effects" and that "carbon pricing tends to be regressive in countries with relatively higher income," indicating that carbon taxing and shifting carbon prices might incentivize governments to shift to green energy as the baseline energy consumption method for developing peri-urban areas.[27] Although urbanization is seen in a positive light, the effects of it can be negative towards those being urbanized. African cities are exposed to multiple climate threats including floods, drought, water stress, sea level rise, heat waves, storms and cyclones, and the related effects of food insecurity and disease outbreaks like Cholera and Malaria from floods and droughts.[28]

Climate impacts in rural areas, such as desertification, biodiversity loss, soil erosion and declines in agricultural productivity, are also driving rural-urban migration of poor rural communities to cities.[29] To achieve sustainable development and climate resilience in cities in Africa, and elsewhere, it is important to consider these urban-rural interlinkages.[23] Increasing attention is being paid to the important role of peri-urban areas in urban climate resilience, particularly regarding the ecosystem services that these areas provide and which are rapidly deteriorating in Sub-Saharan Africa.[30] Peri-urban ecosystems can provide functions such as controlling floods, reducing the urban heat island effect, purifying air and water, supporting food and water security, and managing waste.[31]

Asia[]

China[]

China currently has one of the fastest growing industrial economies in the world, and the effects of this rapid urbanization have not been without climate change implications. The country is one of the largest by land area, and so the most prominent region regarding urbanization is the Yangtze River Delta, or YRD, as it is considered "China’s most developed, dynamic, densely populated and concentrated industrial area" and is allegedly "growing into an influential world-class metropolitan area and playing an important role in China’s economic and social development".[32] In this way urbanization in China could be understood as intimately related to not only the functionality of their economic system, but the society therein; something that makes climate change mitigation an intersectional issue concerning more than simply infrastructure.

Historically, data has shown definitely that "climate change has been shaping the Delta and its socioeconomic development" and that such socioeconomic development in the region "has shaped its geography and built environment, which, however, are not adaptable to future climate change".[32] Thus, it has been stated that "It is imperative to adopt policies and programs to mitigate and adapt to climate change" in the YRD, specifically policies aimed at reducing the impact of particular climate threats based on the YRD's geography. This includes the region's current infrastructure in the mitigation of flood disasters and promotion of efficient energy usage at the local level.[32]

A national-level policy analysis done on the drylands of northern China presents the notion of "sustainable urban landscape planning (SULP)" that specifically aims to "avoid occupying important natural habitats and corridors, prime croplands, and floodplains".[33] The research indicates that adopting SULPs moving into the future can "effectively manage the impacts of climate change on water resource capacity and reduce water stress" not only within the northern China experimental model, but for "drylands around the world".[33]

South Asia[]

South Asia's urban population grew by 130 million between 2001 and 2011—more than the entire population of Japan—and is poised to rise by almost 250 million by 2030.[34] But, urbanisation in South Asia is characterized by higher poverty, slums, pollution and crowding and congestion.[35] At least 130 million South Asians—more than the entire population of Mexico—live in informal urban settlements characterized by poor construction, insecure tenure and underserviced plots.[34] Despite being a water-rich zone, climate projection models suggest that by 2050, between 52–146 million people living in South Asia could face increased water scarcity due to climate change, accounting for 18% of the global population exposed to water scarcity.[36] Urban water access is particularly critical in South Asia as it remains home to more than 40% of the world's poor (living on less than USD 1.25 per day) and 35% of the world's undernourished.[37] A study done of selected Himalayan cities in India and Nepal found that none of them have a robust system of water planning and governance to tackle the water challenges emerging from rapid urbanization and climate change.[38]

North and South America[]

Brazil[]

Areas of South America were also cited in recent studies that highlight the dangers of urbanization on both local and transnational climates, and for a country like Brazil, one of the highest populated nations in the world as well as the majority holder of the Amazon rainforest. The United Nations Development Programme highlights the Amazon rainforest as serving a "key function in the global climate systems," granted its profound usefulness in capturing CO2 emissions.[39] UN research has indicated that because of Brazil's climate being so intimately reliant on the health of the rainforest, deforestation measures are currently seen as having adverse effects on the rainforest's "natural adaptive capacities" towards extreme climate shifts, thus predisposing Brazil to what are expected to be increased volatility in temperature and rainfall patterns.[39] More specifically, it is expected that if global warming continues on its current path without vast mitigation strategies being put in place, what is currently predicted to be an average 2 °C increase in temperature at the global scale could actually look like a 4 °C within Brazil and the surrounding Amazon region.[39]

Issues of climate change in Brazil do not start and end at what has already been done with regards to urbanization; it is very much an issue rooted in socioeconomic contexts. Factor analysis and multilevel regression models sponsored by the U.S. Forest Service reveal that for all of Brazil, "income inequality significantly predicts higher levels of a key component of vulnerability in urban Brazilian municipalities" to flood hazards.[40]

United States[]

The United States, as one of the largest industrialized nations in the world, also has issues regarding infrastructural insufficiencies linked to climate change. Take a study of Las Vegas topology as an indicator. Research that created three Land use/land cover maps, or LULC maps, of Las Vegas in 1900 (albeit hypothetical), 1992, and 2006 found that, "urbanization in Las Vegas produces a classic urban heat island (UHI) at night but a minor cooling trend during the day".[41] In addition to temperature changes in the city, "increased surface roughness" caused by the addition of skyscrapers/closely packed buildings in its own way were found "to have a mechanical effect of slowing down the climatological wind windfield over the urban area".[41] Such unnatural environmental phenomena furthers the notion that urbanization has a role in determining local climate, although researchers acknowledge that more studies need to be conducted in the field.

Cities play an important role in investing in climate innovation in the United States. Often local climate policies in cities, preempt larger policies pursued by the states or federal government. For example, following the United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement a coalition of cities, under the banner of Mayors National Climate Action Agenda. A 2020 study of US cities found that 45 of the 100 largest cities in the U.S. had made commitments by 2017, which led to a reduction of 6% of U.S. emissions by 2020.[18]

Clean Air Act[]

Since the Clean Air Act's passing in 1963 as a landmark piece of legislation aimed at controlling air quality at the national level, research has indicated that "the mean wet deposition flux... has decreased in the U.S. over time" since its enactment. Even then, however, the same research indicated that measurements in the amounts of chemical pollutants contaminating rain, snow, and fog "follows an exponential probability density function at all sites".[22] Such a finding suggests that, in fact, alleged variability in rainfall patterns is the likely driving factor for the study's seemingly promising results, as opposed to there being a clear significance stemming from the policy change.[22] It is within this context that while beneficial, the Clean Air Act alone cannot stand as the only firm rationale for climate policies in the United States moving forward.

Mayors National Climate Action Agenda[]
This section is an excerpt from Mayors National Climate Action Agenda.[]

Mayors National Climate Action Agenda, or Climate Mayors, is an association of United States mayors with the stated goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Founded by Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti, former Houston mayor Annise Parker, and former Philadelphia mayor Michael Nutter, the group represents 435 cities and nearly 20% of the U.S. population.[42][43][44]

Founded in 2014, the organization received one million dollars in start-up funding from the Clinton Global Initiative to support the founding mayors' efforts to organize cities in advance of the signing of the 2015 Paris Agreement.[45]

The organization has stated its commitment to upholding the emissions goals of the Paris Agreement on climate change even if the United States withdraws from the agreement.[46]

International policy[]

Several major international communities of cities and policies have been formed to include more cities in climate action.

C40[]

This section is an excerpt from C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.[]
C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group logo.svg

The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is a group of 97 cities around the world that represents one twelfth of the world's population and one quarter of the global economy.[47] Created and led by cities, C40 is focused on fighting climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health, wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens.

As of 2019, Mayor of Los Angeles Eric Garcetti serves as the C40's chairperson, former mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg as president of the board, and Mark Watts as executive director. All three work closely with the 13-member steering committee, the board of directors[48] and professional staff.[49] The rotating steering committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance.[50] Steering committee members include: Accra, Bogota, Boston, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Dhaka, Dubai, Durban, Hong Kong, London, Los Angeles, Milan, Seattle, and Stockholm.[51]

Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas, C40 convenes networks[52] of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts, including: direct technical assistance; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange; and research, knowledge management & communications. C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world, defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future.[53]

SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities[]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 11.[]
Sustainable Development Goal 11.png

Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11 or Global Goal 11) is about "sustainable cities and communities" and is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. The SDG 11 is to "Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable".[54] The 17 SDGs take into account that action in one area will affect outcomes in other areas as well, and that development must balance social, economic and Environmental Sustainability.[55] The targets of SDG 11 include investment in public transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and management in participatory and inclusive ways.

SDG 11 has 10 targets to be achieved, and this is being measured with 15 indicators. The seven "outcome targets" include: Safe and affordable housing, affordable and sustainable transport systems; inclusive and sustainable urbanization; protect the world's cultural and natural heritage; reduce the adverse effects of natural disasters; reduce the environmental impacts of cities; provide access to safe and inclusive green and public spaces. The three "means of achieving" targets include: Strong national and regional development planning; implement policies for inclusion, resource efficiency and disaster risk reduction; support least developed countries in sustainable and resilient building.[54][56]

In 2018, 4.2 billion people, or 55 percent of the world's population, lived in cities. By 2050, the urban population is expected to reach 6.5 billion.[57] Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces.[57] The world's cities occupy just 3 per cent of the Earth's land, but account for 60–80 per cent of energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions.[58] Thus cities are both an important cause for and solution to climate change.

The number of slum dwellers reached more than 1 billion in 2018, or 24 per cent of the urban population.[59] The number of people living in Slums or informal settlements is highest in Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Central and Southern Asia.[59] In 2019, only half of the world's urban population had convenient access to public transport, defined as living within 500 meters' walking distance from a low-capacity transport system (such as a bus stop) and within 1 km of a high-capacity transport system (such as a railway).[59] In the period 1990–2015, most urban areas recorded a general increase in the extent of built-up area per person. Many regions recorded a consistent increase in the built-up area per capita, with Australia and New Zealand recording the highest values.[59]

Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy[]

This section is an excerpt from Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy.[]
European cities going green
The Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy was established in 2016 by bringing formally together the Compact of Mayors and the European Union's Covenant of Mayors. It is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change.[60] The Compact highlights cities’ climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution. The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action, both at the local level and around the world.[61] The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change.[62] The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40), ICLEI, and United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), as well as UN-Habitat, to unite against climate change.[63] 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors. The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19% of the global population.[64]

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