Land use, land-use change, and forestry

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Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other land use (FOLU), is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities."[1]

LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such, these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon) from the atmosphere, influencing climate.[2] LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Additionally, land use is of critical importance for biodiversity.[3]

Impacts[]

Climate impacts[]

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions by country including land-use change, in the year 2000 according to World Resources Institute

Land-use change can be a factor in CO2 (carbon dioxide) atmospheric concentration, and is thus a contributor to global climate change.[4] IPCC estimates that land-use change (e.g. conversion of forest into agricultural land) contributes a net 1.6 ± 0.8 Gt carbon per year to the atmosphere. For comparison, the major source of CO2, namely emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production, amount to 6.3 ± 0.6 Gt carbon per year.[5]

This decision sets out the rules that govern how Kyoto Parties with emission reduction commitments (so-called Annex 1 Parties) account for changes in carbon stocks in land use, land-use change and forestry.[6] It is mandatory for Annex 1 Parties to account for changes in carbons stocks resulting from deforestation, reforestation and afforestation (B Article 3.3)[7] and voluntary to account for emissions from forest management, cropland management, grazing land management and revegetation (B. Article 3.4).[6]

The land-use sector is critical to achieving the aim of the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).[8]

The impact of land-use change on the climate is also more and more recognized by the climate modeling community. On regional or local scales, the impact of LUC can be assessed by Regional climate models (RCMs). This is however difficult, particularly for variables, which are inherently noisy, such as precipitation. For this reason, it is suggested to conduct RCM ensemble simulations.[9]

Food security impacts[]

See also: Food security

Biodiversity impacts[]

The extent, and type of land use directly affects wildlife habitat and thereby impacts local and global biodiversity.[10] Human alteration of landscapes from natural vegetation (e.g. wilderness) to any other use can result in habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, all of which can have devastating effects on biodiversity.[11] Land conversion is the single greatest cause of extinction of terrestrial species.[12] An example of land conversion being a chief cause of the critically endangered status of a carnivore is the reduction in habitat for the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus.[13]

Deforestation is also the reason for loss of a natural habitat, with large numbers of trees being cut down for residential and commercial use. Urban growth has become a problem for forests and agriculture, the expansion of structures prevents natural resources from producing in their environment.[14] In order to prevent the loss of wildlife the forests must maintain a stable climate and the land must remain unaffected by development.[citation needed] Furthermore, forests can be sustained by different forest management techniques such as reforestation and preservation. Reforestation is a reactive approach designed to replant trees that were previously logged within the forest boundary in attempts to re-stabilize this ecosystem. Preservation on the other hand is a proactive idea that promotes the concept of leaving the forest as is, without using this area for its ecosystem goods and services.[15] Both of these methods to mitigate deforestation are being used throughout the world.[citation needed]

The U.S. Forest service predicts that urban and developing terrain in the U.S. will expand by 41 percent in the year 2060.[16] These conditions cause displacement for the wildlife and limited resources for the environment to maintain a sustainable balance.[17]

Extents and mapping[]

Share of the total land surface without and with consideration of multiple changes between six major land use/cover categories (urban area, cropland, pasture/rangeland, forest, unmanaged grass/shrubland, non-/sparsely vegetated land) in 1960–2019.[18]

A 2021 study estimated, with higher resolution data, that land-use change has affected 17 % of land in 1960-2019, or when considering multiple change events 32 %, "around four times" previous estimates. They also investigate its drivers, identifying global trade affecting agriculture as a main driver.[19][18]

Forest modeling[]

Traditionally, earth system modeling has been used to analyze forests for climate projections. However, in recent years there has been a shift away from this modeling towards more of mitigation and adaptation projections.[20] These projections can give researchers a better understanding of what future forest management practices should be employed. Furthermore, this new approach to modeling also allows for land management practices to be analyzed in the model. Such land management practices can be: forest harvest, tree species selection, grazing, and crop harvest. These land management practices are implemented to understand their biophysical and biogeochemical effects on the forest. However, there is a major lack of available data for these practices currently, so there needs to be further monitoring and data collecting to help improve the accuracy of the models.[citation needed]

Examples of land use changes[]

In the Amazon rainforest[]

In the Amazon rainforest, forest is being cleared to make room for soy and palm oil production, and for making grassland, which is itself used for grazing cattle.

Possible solutions[]

In 2019, the European Union launched its European Green Deal and has been discussing measures to minimise its contribution to deforestation and forest degradation around the world (i.e. food imports, ...).[21][22] Product tracing systems exist, which may allow tracing the origin of the produce to its source (i.e. agricultural company). This allows the consumer himself to make informed decisions on the products he buys. Carbon footprints (i.e. from land use changes) may or may not be visible on these systems per item of each agricultural company.

Some countries in Europe have, in order to meet current soybean demand, already explored the possibility of producing soybeans in Europe, in an effort to make it more independent from soybeans produced abroad, thus assisting in the avoidance of high carbon food print imports of soy.[23]

Technological changes occurring within the meat and dairy industry may also offer a solution. For instance, due to the environmental impact of meat production and milk production, production of meat analogues and milk substitutes (fermentation, single-cell protein)[24][25]) is being explored. This may or may not effect the economics of cattle farming as well[26] (along with soy production and exports, as a portion of it is used as fodder for cattle).

In order to reduce these risks (technological changes within the industry), diversification of the income of farmers may help. Silvopasture for instance allows to keep a portion of the forest in its natural state, and also allows to keep livestock within the (partially forested) space (which also allow the livestock to shield themselves from direct sunlight). In instances where the pasture has already been cleared of trees, trees can be added. When (native) fruit trees are added, a possible additional revenue stream is thus created, allowing the farmer to diversify the income.

Some countries in Europe have already (indirectly) supported ways of food production that are non-destructive to forests. For example, Norway's government announced that it would donate US$1 billion to the newly established Amazon fund.[27] Projects such as the Amazon fund also indirectly support the indigenous people in the Amazon (which often use non-destructive agriculture practices, such as the harvesting of non-timber forest products). The Amazon Fund also focuses on the development of sustainable supply chains for local products, such as açaí, Brazil nuts, cocoa, vegetable oils, processed timber, and handicrafts, as well as community-based tourism.[28]

In addition to this, there are also new farming techniques that allow for more intensive farming (thus taking up less space). By farming more intensively, and requiring less space, a same amount of financial income can be generated on a smaller section of land, meaning less (forested) land needs to put into cultivation and can remain untouched. An example is vertical farming, which produces food by cultivating upwards. In some cases, forests are combined with farming, and the forest itself actually serves as a benefit to the farming. An example is agroforestry, where trees can help to shade out crops (which may not endure full sunlight on their own). There is also integrated mangrove-shrimp aquaculture, in which shrimp farming is done while keeping most of the mangrove intact.

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ "Glossary of climate change acronyms and terms". UNFCCC. Retrieved 2020-04-06.
  2. ^ Land use and the carbon cycle : advances in integrated science, management, and policy. Brown, Daniel G. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-139-62507-4. OCLC 823505307.CS1 maint: others (link)
  3. ^ Towards Sustainable Land Use: Aligning Biodiversity, Climate and Food Policies. (2020). France: OECD Publishing.
  4. ^ Ochoa-Hueso, R; Delgado-Baquerizo, M; King, PTA; Benham, M; Arca, V; Power, SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 129: 144–152. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009.
  5. ^ "IPCC Special Reports: Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry". ipcc.ch. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b "Reporting on LULUCF activities under the Kyoto Protocol". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
  7. ^ "Microsoft Word - kpcmp8a3.doc" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-04-29.
  8. ^ "Land use and forestry regulation for 2021-2030". Climate Action - European Commission. 2016-11-23. Retrieved 2020-04-06.
  9. ^ Laux, Patrick (2016). "How many RCM ensemble members provide confidence in the impact of land-use land cover change?" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology. 37 (4): 2080–2100. doi:10.1002/joc.4836.
  10. ^ Landscape ecology and wildlife habitat evaluation : critical information for ecological risk assessment, land-use management activities, and biodiversity enhancement. Kapustka, Lawrence. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. 2004. ISBN 0-8031-3476-2. OCLC 55488045.CS1 maint: others (link)
  11. ^ Habitat loss : causes, impacts on biodiversity and reduction strategies. Devore, Bronson. New York: Nova. 2014. ISBN 978-1-63117-231-1. OCLC 867765925.CS1 maint: others (link)
  12. ^ Bierregaard, Richard; Claude Gascon; Thomas E. Lovejoy; Rita Mesquita, eds. (2001). Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest. ISBN 0-300-08483-8.
  13. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived 2010-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ Ehrhardt-Martinez, Karen (Aug 16, 2003). "Demographics, Democracy, Development, Disparity and Deforestation: A Crossnational Assessment of the Social Causes of Deforestation". American Sociological Association. Archived from the original on 2008-12-10.
  15. ^ Lund, H. Gyde (2006). Definitions of Forest, Deforestation, Afforestation, and Reforestation. Gainesville, VA: Forest Information Services.
  16. ^ "Forest Service report forecasts natural resource management trends and challenges for next 50 years | US Forest Service". www.fs.usda.gov. 17 April 2013. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
  17. ^ National Conference of State Legislature."State Forest Carbon Incentives and Policies".Jocelyn Durkay and Jennifer Schultz..22 March 2016. Web.25 April 2015.http://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/state-forest-carbon-incentives-and-policies.aspx
  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Winkler, Karina; Fuchs, Richard; Rounsevell, Mark; Herold, Martin (2021-05-11). "Global land use changes are four times greater than previously estimated". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 2501. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.2501W. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22702-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8113269. PMID 33976120. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
  19. ^ "Nearly a fifth of Earth's surface transformed since 1960". phys.org. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  20. ^ National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on a National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling. (2012). A national strategy for advancing climate modeling. National Research Council (U.S.). Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate., National Research Council (U.S.). Division on Earth and Life Studies. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-25978-1. OCLC 824780474.
  21. ^ Diminishing the EU's deforestation footprint
  22. ^ Green Deal measures
  23. ^ Why the EU growing its own soybeans could prevent fires in the Amazon
  24. ^ Rethink X: food and agriculture
  25. ^ Rethinking agriculture report
  26. ^ Reese, Jacy (6 November 2018). The End of Animal Farming: How Scientists, Entrepreneurs, and Activists are Building an Animal-Free Food System. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807039878.
  27. ^ Norway paying more than $1.2 billion to Amazon Fund in 2008, but currently halted
  28. ^ Ten years on, Amazon Fund receives applause, criticism, faces new tests

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