East Turkestan independence movement

Kök Bayraq has become a symbol of the East Turkestan independence movement.

This emblem, featuring the basmalah-stylized tughra (calligraphic monogram), is sometimes used alongside the flag above.

The East Turkestan independence movement (Uighur: شەرقىي تۈركىستان مۇستەقىللىق ھەرىكىتى, Chinese: 东突厥斯坦独立运动) is a political movement that seeks the independence of East Turkestan, a large and sparsely-populated region in northwest China, as a homeland for the Uyghur people, who are primarily of Turkic rather than Sinitic (Han Chinese) ethnic extraction. The region is currently administered as a province-level subdivision of the People's Republic of China (PRC), under the official name Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Within the movement, there is widespread support for the region to be renamed, since "Xinjiang" (meaning "new frontier" in Chinese) is seen by independence activists as a colonial name. "East Turkestan" is the most well-known proposed name. "Uyghurstan" is another well-known proposed name.

Xinjiang was initially conquered by the Qing dynasty, a historical Chinese ethnic-Manchu regime, in the 1750s, with 1759 being the year of the establishment of the original form of the modern day administrative region. Xinjiang was subsequently inherited by the Republic of China (ROC), which succeeded the Qing dynasty in 1912, and then by the PRC, which mostly succeeded the ROC in 1949 (except in Taiwan and other minor islands). Throughout Qing and ROC rule, there were several periods of brief de facto independence for either the entire region of Xinjiang or parts of it, as well as foreign occupation and warlord governance. The PRC incorporation of Xinjiang occurred soon after the regime was established in 1949, and since then, Xinjiang has remained a region of China. The PRC claims that Xinjiang has been part of China for over 2000 years, though evidence for this claim is scant. Historically, Xinjiang has constituted an independent "East Turkestan", though various non-Chinese regimes controlled the region at times prior to the 1750s. Xinjiang has been a hotbed of ethnic and religious conflict throughout much of the period that it has been governed by successive Chinese regimes.

The Chinese government considers all support for the East Turkestan independence movement to fall under the definitions of "terrorism, extremism, and separatism".^[1] The East Turkestan independence movement is supported by both militant Islamic extremist groups which have been designated terrorist organizations by several countries and the United Nations, such as the Turkistan Islamic Party,^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] as well as certain advocacy groups, such as the East Turkistan National Awakening Movement. It is officially represented by the East Turkistan Government in Exile based in Washington, DC which denounced militant and jihadist groups.^[7]

Proposed name[]

The most common name for Xinjiang used by independence advocates is "East Turkestan" (or "Uyghurstan"). There is no consensus among secessionists about whether to use "East Turkestan" or "Uyghurstan";^[8] "East Turkestan" has the advantage of also being the name of two historical political entities in the region, while Uyghurstan appeals to modern ideas of ethnic self-determination. Uyghurstan is also a difference in emphasis in that it excludes more peoples in Xinjiang than just the Han,^[9] but the "East Turkestan" movement^[10] is still a Uyghur phenomenon. The name "East Turkestan" is not currently used in an official sense by most sovereign states and intergovernmental organizations. Another proposed alternative is "Yarkand" or "Yarkent," which harkens back to the Yarkent Khanate, a powerful Uyghur state in the 16th and 17th centuries.

History[]

Yaqub Beg establishment of Kashgaria[]

The Kokandi Yaqub Beg invaded Kashgar during the Dungan revolt to establish an independent state after taking advantage of local rebellions.

Also, during the Dungan revolt, the Taranchi Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang initially cooperated with the Dungans (Chinese Muslims) when they rose in revolt, but turned on them, because the Dungans, mindful of their Chinese heritage, attempted to subject the entire region to their rule. The Taranchi massacred the Dungans at Kuldja and drove the rest through the Talk pass into the Ili valley.^[11]

Within the Republic of China (1912–1949)[]

The Second East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived Soviet-backed unrecognized republic in northern Xinjiang.

After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, the region became largely free of the control of the government of Republic of China (ROC). An early attempt at East Turkestan independence was the establishment of the short-lived "First East Turkestan Republic" (aka "Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan"), which lasted between 1933 and 1934. This republic was formed following a rebellion in Kashgar against the ROC, which had been in the process of asserting control over Kashgar after two decades of Warlordism in the ROC. The Chinese Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) suppressed the First East Turkestan Republic following Chinese (ROC) victories at the Battle of Kashgar (1933) and Battle of Kashgar (1934).

During the later years of China under the ROC, which was engaged against the Chinese Communists in the context of the Chinese Civil War, the Soviet Union under leader Joseph Stalin invaded Xinjiang and assisted a local rebellion at Ili (Yining City). The rebellion led to the establishment of the Second East Turkistan Republic (1944–1949), which existed in three northern districts (Ili, Tarbaghatai, Altai) of Xinjiang with secret aid from the Soviet Union. After emerging victorious at the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the People's Liberation Army annexed Xinjiang from the ROC and the Second East Turkestan Republic.

Within the People's Republic of China (1949–present)[]

Since the Chinese economic reform from the late 1970s exacerbated uneven regional development, while Uyghurs have migrated to urbanizing Xinjiang cities, some Hans have also migrated to Xinjiang for independent economic advancement. Increased ethnic contact and labor competition coincided with Uyghur separatist terrorism from the 1990s, such as the 1997 Ürümqi bus bombings.^[12]

A police roundup of suspected separatists during Ramadan resulted in large demonstrations that turned violent in February 1997 in an episode known as the Ghulja Incident that led to at least 9 deaths.^[13] The Ürümqi bus bombings of 25 February 1997, perhaps a response to the crackdown that followed the Ghulja Incident, killed 9 and injured 68. Speaking on separatist violence, Erkin Alptekin, a former East Turkestan National Congress chairman and prominent Uyghur activist, said: "We must emphasize dialog and warn our youth against the use of violence because it delegitimizes our movement".^[14]

Recent events[]

Despite much talk of separatism and terrorism in Xinjiang, especially after the 9-11 attacks in the United States and the US invasion of Afghanistan, the situation in Xinjiang was quiet from around 1998 to mid-2006. In 2005, Uygur author Nurmemet Yasin was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for inciting separatism following his publication of an allegorical short story, "The Blue Pigeon".^[15] Rebiya Kadeer claimed that Turkey is hampered from interfering with the Uyghurs because it recognizes that the Kurdish-Turkish conflict may receive interference from China in retaliation.^[16]

Views on independence[]

Arguments in favor of independence[]

Several proponents of independence state that the Uyghurs have had a defined history in Xinjiang for "over 4000 years",^[17] a claim which has neither been proven nor disproven^{[citation needed]}. There are historical arguments for the independence of Xinjiang, such as the argument that the People's Republic of China is a colonial occupier of Xinjiang, rather than it naturally being an integral part of the sovereign state which traditionally includes Xinjiang. Evidence for this argument usually consists of claims that the PRC is not the legitimate successor state to either the ROC (now based in Taiwan) or the previous imperial dynasty of China, which is the Qing dynasty, or that previous regimes were also illegitimate.^[18]

Arguments against independence[]

The Government of China is strongly opposed to the idea of Xinjiang (East Turkestan) independence and its supporters are subject to harsh criminal penalties. China officially claims that Xinjiang has been part of China since the Han dynasty of China (220 BC - AD 206) established a Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC.^[19] China claims that Xinjiang has always belonged to China even at times when it was occupied by several other countries. Historically, various Chinese governments have described invasions of Xinjiang as a sort of "reconquest" of previously lost territories ever since the Han and Tang dynasties.

Some Uyghur nationalist historians such as Turghun Almas claim that Uyghurs were distinct and independent from Chinese for 6000 years, and that all other ethnic groups are later immigrants to Xinjiang.^[20] Records show that military colonies (tuntian) and commanderies () were set up by the Han Dynasty to control Xinjiang, while the Tang Dynasty (618–907) also controlled much of Xinjiang until the An Lushan rebellion.^[21] Chinese historians refute Uyghur nationalist claims by pointing out the 2000-year history of Han settlement in Xinjiang, documenting the history of Mongol, Kazakh, Uzbek, Manchu, Hui, Xibo indigenes in Xinjiang, and by emphasizing the relatively late "westward migration" of the Huigu (equated with "Uyghur" by the PRC government) people from Mongolia the 9th century.^[20] The name "Uyghur" was associated with a Buddhist people in the Tarim Basin in the 9th century, but completely disappeared by the 15th century, until it was revived by the Soviet Union in the 20th century.^[22]

Chinese government views[]

The Chinese government considers all support for the East Turkestan independence movement to fall under the definitions of "terrorism, extremism, and separatism".^[1] The Chinese government maintains without evidence that the independence movement is largely funded and led by outside forces that seek to weaken China; it further claims that despite such movements, Xinjiang has made great economic strides, building up its infrastructure, improving its education system and increasing the average life expectancy.^[23]

In a 2014 speech, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping argued that the dissolution of the Soviet Union demonstrated that economic development alone would not prevent separatism in Xinjiang. He elaborated “In recent years, Xinjiang has grown very quickly and the standard of living has consistently risen, but even so, ethnic separatism and terrorist violence have still been on the rise. This goes to show that economic development does not automatically bring lasting order and security.”^[24]

In 2020, the Chinese government published a White Paper on Employment and Labor Rights in Xinjiang, which had been circulated via Xinhua, the Global Times and other public news channels. In this paper, the Chinese Communist Party and government maintain the view that its policies in Xinjiang are directed to realize the (constitutional) mandate to provide employment and the facilitation of employment as the most fundamental project for ensuring and improving people's wellbeing.^[25]

Government in Exile[]

ETGIE members at Capitol Hill on 14 September 2004

One of the most seminal events of the East Turkestan independence movement was the establishment of the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile by a group of Uyghur, Kazakh, and Uzbek East Turkistani independence activists from across the globe in Washington D.C. on 14 September 2004.^[26] The East Turkistan Government in Exile was set up as a parliamentary government in exile and was initially led by Ahmet Igemberdi and Anwar Yusuf Turani^[27] The East Turkistan Government in Exile is most active and leading official body advocating for East Turkistan's independence.

Organizations[]

In general, the wide variety of groups who seek independence can be distinguished as either civil ones excluding violence, or militant ones that do not rule out violence. Other difference are in the type of government they advocate and the role they believe an independent East Turkestan should play in international affairs.

Civil organizations[]

East Turkistan National Awakening Movement - Located in Washington DC, United States. It was formed on 4 June 2017.

Militant organizations[]

Most militant organizations have been labeled terrorist organizations by the PRC, and some other governments as well. For example, the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM, also Turkistan Islamic Party), which has claimed responsibility for attacks in Xinjiang, has been identified as a terrorist organization by the governments of China, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Turkey and, until October 2020, the United States,^[28] as well as the United Nations.^[29]^[2]^[30]

Historical support[]

Historically, organizations which have supported the East Turkestan independence movement include:

East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party (ETPRP) - Was an Uyghur communist party and was the largest armed separatist group in Xinjiang in its time. The Soviet Union was involved in funding and support to the ETPRP to start a violent uprising against China in 1968.^[31]
United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET) - Was an Uyghur nationalist group in Xinjiang that participated in the Xinjiang conflict as an armed separatist force. It was backed by the Soviet Union.
East Turkestan Liberation Organization - Was a secessionist militant Uyghur organization that advocated for an independent Uyghur state in Xinjiang. Widely believed to have links to Taliban and the East Turkestan Islamic Movement.^[32]
Committee for National Revolution - Was a Turkic nationalist Uyghur party which existed in 1932–1934. It helped found the First East Turkestan Republic.
Young Kashgar Party - Was a Turkic nationalist Uyghur party which existed from 1933 to 1934. It helped found the First East Turkestan Republic.

Soviet Union[]

The Soviet Union supported the Uyghur Second East Turkestan Republic in the Ili Rebellion against the Republic of China. According to her autobiography, Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China, Rebiya Kadeer's father served with pro-Soviet Uyghur rebels under the Second East Turkestan Republic in the Ili Rebellion (Three Province Rebellion) in 1944–1946, using Soviet assistance and aid to fight the Republic of China government under Chiang Kai-shek.^[33] Kadeer and her family were close friends with White Russian exiles living in Xinjiang and Kadeer recalled that many Uyghurs thought Russian culture was "more advanced" than that of the Uyghurs and they "respected" the Russians a lot.^[34]

Many of the Turkic peoples of the Ili region of Xinjiang had close cultural, political, and economic ties with Russia and then the Soviet Union. Many of them were educated in the Soviet Union and a community of Russian settlers lived in the region. As a result, many of the Turkic rebels fled to the Soviet Union and obtained Soviet assistance in creating the Sinkiang Turkic People's Liberation Committee (STPNLC) in 1943 to revolt against Kuomintang rule during the Ili Rebellion.^[35] The pro-Soviet Uyghur who later became leader of the revolt and the Second East Turkestan Republic, Ehmetjan Qasim, was Soviet educated and described as "Stalin's man".^[36]

The Soviet Union incited separatist activities in Xinjiang through propaganda, encouraging Kazakhs to flee to the Soviet Union and attacking China. China responded by reinforcing the Xinjiang-Soviet border area specifically with Han Bingtuan militia and farmers.^[37] The Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalist propaganda and Uyghur separatist movements against China. The Soviet historians claimed that the Uyghur native land was Xinjiang and Uyghur nationalism was promoted by Soviet versions of history on turcology.^[38] The East Turkestan People's Party received support from the Soviet Union.^[39]^[40]^[41] During the 1970s, the Soviets supported the URFET to fight the Chinese.^[42]

References[]

Citations[]

^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Hasan, Mehdi (15 September 2018). "Has China detained a million Uighur Muslims?". Al Jazeera (This is an interview published by the news channel Al Jazeera on the video-sharing website YouTube. The interview was conducted between the presenter of the show (named Mehdi Hasan), the chairman of the Uyghur Human Rights Project at the time (named Nury Turkel), and the vice president of the Center for China and Globalization at the time (named Victor Gao)). Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2019. I know [what] the importance of law is in China. I really hope everyone respects the law. However, in Xinjiang, the major threat we face is terrorism and extremism and separatism, and I think the authorities have the right to ensure that innocent people are not harmed and that extreme versions of religions of all kinds are not penetrating through the population, and then people cannot misuse religion as an excuse to stir up trouble, to destabilize, and to bring the society to a halt. And I think the people are justified to that.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Governance Asia-Pacific Watch". United Nations. April 2007. Archived from the original on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2007.
^ "هؤلاء انغماسيو أردوغان الذين يستوردهم من الصين - عربي أونلاين". 3arabionline.com. 31 January 2017. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
^ "Turkey lists "E. Turkestan Islamic Movement" as terrorists - People's Daily Online". En.people.cn. 3 August 2017. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
^ Martina, Michael; Blanchard, Ben; Spring, Jake (20 July 2016). Ruwitch, John; Macfie, Nick (eds.). "Britain adds Chinese militant group to terror list". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017.
^ "U.S.Department of State Terrorist Exclusion List" Archived 3 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved on 29 July 2014).
^ "About the ETGE". East Turkistan Government in Exile. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2008). "Place and People". Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. Brill. pp. 35–38, 44–45.
^ Priniotakis, Manolis (26 October 2001). "China's Secret Separatists: Uyghuristan's Ever-Lengthening Path to Independence". The American Prospect. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
^ Pan, Guang (2006). "East Turkestan Terrorism and the Terrorist Arc: China's Post-9/11 Anti-Terror Strategy" (PDF). China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and . 4 (2): 19–24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2011.
^ Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (1871). Accounts and papers of the House of Commons. Ordered to be printed. p. 35. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
^ Hopper & Webber 2009, pp. 173–175.
^ "China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang". Human Rights Watch Backgrounder. Human Rights Watch. 17 October 2001. Archived from the original on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ Priniotakis, Manolis (19 December 2001). "China's Secret Separatists". The Prospect. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.
^ McDonald, Hamish (12 November 2005). "China battles to convince terror sceptics". The Age. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014.
^ Kadeer 2009, p. 273.
^ "Who are the Uyghurs?". East Turkestan Australian Association. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
^ "East Turkestan; Brief History". World Uyghur Congress. 29 September 2016. Archived from the original on 30 July 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
^ "About Xinjiang". Sinkiang China Government Official Website. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Bovingdon 2010, pp. 25, 30–31.
^ Bovingdon 2010, pp. 25–26.
^ Bovingdon 2010, p. 28.
^ China White Paper on Xinjiang 26 May 2004
^ Vassallo, Christopher. "The Soviet Origins of Xi's Xinjiang Policy". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
^ Justifying Forced Labor in Xinjiang? A Review of the White Paper "Employment and Labor Rights in Xinjiang". Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344338157_Justifying_Forced_Labor_in_Xinjiang_A_Review_of_the_White_Paper_Employment_and_Labor_Rights_in_Xinjiang [accessed 18 Nov 2020]
^ "About the ETGE". East Turkistan Government in Exile. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "China Protests Establishment of Uighur Government-in-Exile in Washington – 2004-09-21". Voice of America. 29 October 2009.
^ Lipes, Joshua (5 November 2020). "US Drops ETIM From Terror List, Weakening China's Pretext For Xinjiang Crackdown". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
^ Cody, Edward (10 May 2006). "China demands that Albania return ex-U.S. detainees". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
^ "Country Reports". United States Department of State. 27 April 2004. Archived from the original on 2 October 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
^ Dillon 2003, p. 57; Clarke 2011, p. 69; Nathan & Scobell 2013.
^ Eastern Turkistan Liberation Organization Archived 27 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine MIPT Terror Knowledge Base
^ Kadeer 2009, p. 9.
^ Kadeer 2009, p. 13.
^ Forbes 1986, p. 173.
^ Forbes 1986, p. 174.
^ Starr 2004, p. 138.
^ Bellér-Hann 2007, p. 37.
^ Dillon (2003), p. 57.
^ Clarke (2011), p. 69.
^ Nathan & Scobell (2013), p. 278.
^ Reed & Raschke (2010), p. 37.

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External links[]

[:0-1] Jump up to: ^a ^b Hasan, Mehdi (15 September 2018). "Has China detained a million Uighur Muslims?". Al Jazeera (This is an interview published by the news channel Al Jazeera on the video-sharing website YouTube. The interview was conducted between the presenter of the show (named Mehdi Hasan), the chairman of the Uyghur Human Rights Project at the time (named Nury Turkel), and the vice president of the Center for China and Globalization at the time (named Victor Gao)). Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2019. I know [what] the importance of law is in China. I really hope everyone respects the law. However, in Xinjiang, the major threat we face is terrorism and extremism and separatism, and I think the authorities have the right to ensure that innocent people are not harmed and that extreme versions of religions of all kinds are not penetrating through the population, and then people cannot misuse religion as an excuse to stir up trouble, to destabilize, and to bring the society to a halt. And I think the people are justified to that.

[UN-ETIM-2] Jump up to: ^a ^b "Governance Asia-Pacific Watch". United Nations. April 2007. Archived from the original on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2007.

[3arabionline.com-3] "هؤلاء انغماسيو أردوغان الذين يستوردهم من الصين - عربي أونلاين". 3arabionline.com. 31 January 2017. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.

[Turkey-TIP-4] "Turkey lists "E. Turkestan Islamic Movement" as terrorists - People's Daily Online". En.people.cn. 3 August 2017. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.

[5] Martina, Michael; Blanchard, Ben; Spring, Jake (20 July 2016). Ruwitch, John; Macfie, Nick (eds.). "Britain adds Chinese militant group to terror list". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017.

[T.E.L.-6] "U.S.Department of State Terrorist Exclusion List" Archived 3 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved on 29 July 2014).

[7] "About the ETGE". East Turkistan Government in Exile. Retrieved 16 March 2021.

[Ildiko_2008-8] Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2008). "Place and People". Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. Brill. pp. 35–38, 44–45.

[Priniotakis-9] Priniotakis, Manolis (26 October 2001). "China's Secret Separatists: Uyghuristan's Ever-Lengthening Path to Independence". The American Prospect. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2011.

[Pan-10] Pan, Guang (2006). "East Turkestan Terrorism and the Terrorist Arc: China's Post-9/11 Anti-Terror Strategy" (PDF). China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and . 4 (2): 19–24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2011.

[11] Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (1871). Accounts and papers of the House of Commons. Ordered to be printed. p. 35. Retrieved 28 June 2010.

[FOOTNOTEHopperWebber2009173–175-12] Hopper & Webber 2009, pp. 173–175.

[13] "China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang". Human Rights Watch Backgrounder. Human Rights Watch. 17 October 2001. Archived from the original on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2016.

[14] Priniotakis, Manolis (19 December 2001). "China's Secret Separatists". The Prospect. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.

[15] McDonald, Hamish (12 November 2005). "China battles to convince terror sceptics". The Age. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014.

[FOOTNOTEKadeer2009[httpsarchiveorgdetailsdragonfighterone0000kadepage273_273]-16] Kadeer 2009, p. 273.

[17] "Who are the Uyghurs?". East Turkestan Australian Association. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.

[18] "East Turkestan; Brief History". World Uyghur Congress. 29 September 2016. Archived from the original on 30 July 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.

[19] "About Xinjiang". Sinkiang China Government Official Website. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2019.

[FOOTNOTEBovingdon201025,_30–31-20] Jump up to: ^a ^b Bovingdon 2010, pp. 25, 30–31.

[FOOTNOTEBovingdon201025–26-21] Bovingdon 2010, pp. 25–26.

[FOOTNOTEBovingdon201028-22] Bovingdon 2010, p. 28.

[23] China White Paper on Xinjiang 26 May 2004

[Vassallo_2021-24] Vassallo, Christopher. "The Soviet Origins of Xi's Xinjiang Policy". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 13 June 2021.

[25] Justifying Forced Labor in Xinjiang? A Review of the White Paper "Employment and Labor Rights in Xinjiang". Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344338157_Justifying_Forced_Labor_in_Xinjiang_A_Review_of_the_White_Paper_Employment_and_Labor_Rights_in_Xinjiang [accessed 18 Nov 2020]

[26] "About the ETGE". East Turkistan Government in Exile. Retrieved 16 March 2021.

[27] "China Protests Establishment of Uighur Government-in-Exile in Washington – 2004-09-21". Voice of America. 29 October 2009.

[28] Lipes, Joshua (5 November 2020). "US Drops ETIM From Terror List, Weakening China's Pretext For Xinjiang Crackdown". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 5 November 2020.

[cody-29] Cody, Edward (10 May 2006). "China demands that Albania return ex-U.S. detainees". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2017.

[30] "Country Reports". United States Department of State. 27 April 2004. Archived from the original on 2 October 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTEDillon200357Clarke201169NathanScobell2013-31] Dillon 2003, p. 57; Clarke 2011, p. 69; Nathan & Scobell 2013.

[PROFILE-32] Eastern Turkistan Liberation Organization Archived 27 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine MIPT Terror Knowledge Base

[FOOTNOTEKadeer20099-33] Kadeer 2009, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTEKadeer200913-34] Kadeer 2009, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEForbes1986173-35] Forbes 1986, p. 173.

[FOOTNOTEForbes1986174-36] Forbes 1986, p. 174.

[FOOTNOTEStarr2004138-37] Starr 2004, p. 138.

[FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann200737-38] Bellér-Hann 2007, p. 37.

[FOOTNOTEDillon2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1ia-2lDtGH4CpgPA57_57]-39] Dillon (2003), p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEClarke2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjRhHphtBg-QCpgPA69_69]-40] Clarke (2011), p. 69.

[FOOTNOTENathanScobell2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidetRkjLv8AosCpgPT278_278]-41] Nathan & Scobell (2013), p. 278.

[FOOTNOTEReedRaschke201037-42] Reed & Raschke (2010), p. 37.

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show v t Movements of regionalism, separatism and stateless nationalism in Asia
List of active separatist movements in Asia
Afghanistan	Hazarajat Pashtun
Azerbaijan	Artsakh Lezgin Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic
Bangladesh	Chittagonian
China	Cantonese Hong Kong Macau Manchurian Southern Mongolian Taiwanese Tibetan Uyghur
Cyprus	Turkish Cypriot
Georgia	Abkhazian Adjaran Ossetian
India	Assamese Bodo Manipuri Kashmiri Naga Sikh Tripuri
Indonesia	Aceh West Papuan
Iran	Ahwazi Arab Baloch Kurdish South Azerbaijani
Iraq	Assyrian Kurdish Turkmeneli
Israel	Palestinian
Japan	Ryukyu
Kazakhstan	North Kazakhstani
Kyrgyzstan
Laos	Hmong
Malaysia	North Borneo
Myanmar	Chin Kachin Karen Kokang Mon Palaung Rakhine Rohingya Shan Wa
Nepal	Madhesh
Pakistan	Baloch Kashmiri Pashtun Sindh
Philippines	Bangsamoro Sulu
Russia	Balkar and Karachay Chechen Circassian Crimean Tatar Karelian Lezgin Ossetian Sámi Siberian Tatar
Sri Lanka	Tamil
Syria	Assyrian Kurdish Turkmen
Taiwan	Chinese
Tajikistan	Pamiri
Thailand	Patani
Turkey	Assyrian Eastern Greek Kurdish Western Armenian
Uzbekistan	Karakalpak
Vietnam	Cham Hmong Khmer Montagnard
Yemen	South Yemeni

show v t Xinjiang topics
Ürümqi (capital)
History	Tocharians Yuezhi Xiongnu Han dynasty Protectorate of the Western Regions Kingdom of Khotan Sixteen Kingdoms Gaochang Göktürks: First, Western, Eastern and Second Tang dynasty Protectorate General to Pacify the West Four Garrisons of Anxi Beiting Protectorate Tibetan Empire Uyghur Khaganate Kingdom of Qocho Kara-Khanid Khanate Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin Qara Khitai Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty Chagatai Khanate Moghulistan Kara Del Yarkent Khanate Dzungar Khanate Dzungar conquest of Altishahr Dzungar–Qing War Dzungar genocide Kumul Khanate Qing dynasty Qing rule Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas Āfāqī Khoja Holy War Holy War of the Seven Khojas General of Ili Reconquest of Xinjiang Republic of China Xinjiang Wars First East Turkestan Republic Second East Turkestan Republic Ili Rebellion People's Republic of China PRC incorporation Uyghur genocide
Geography	Cities Tian Shan Dzungarian Basin Tarim Basin Gurbantünggüt Desert Kumtag Desert Taklimakan Desert Turpan Depression Karakoram Mountains Altai Mountains Kunlun Shan Pamir Mountains Torugart Pass Irkeshtam Pass Karakoram Pass Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway
Education	Xinjiang University Xinjiang Agricultural University Xinjiang Medical University
Culture	Doppa Festival Music Meshrep gathering Muqam
Cuisine	Dapanji Nan Sangza Samsa Youtazi Pamirdin Xurpa Tunurkawab Chinese Islamic cuisine
Economy	Cotton industry Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Visitor attractions	Apak Khoja and Xiang Fei Tomb Flaming Mountains Jiaohe Ruins Gaochang Grand Bazaar, Ürümqi Id Kah Mosque Karakul Lake Kizil Caves Ruins of Niya
Xinjiang conflict	1989 Ürümqi unrest Baren Township conflict 1992 Ürümqi bombings Ghulja incident 1992 Ürümqi bombings 1997 Ürümqi bus bombings Xinjiang raid 2008 Uyghur unrest 2008 Kashgar attack Shaoguan incident July 2009 Ürümqi riots September 2009 Xinjiang unrest 2010 Aksu bombing 2011 Hotan attack 2011 Kashgar attacks Pishan hostage crisis 2012 Yecheng attack Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 April 2013 Bachu unrest June 2013 Shanshan riots 2013 Tiananmen Square attack 2014 Kunming attack 2014 China–Vietnam border shootout April 2014 Ürümqi attack May 2014 Ürümqi attack Assassination of Juma Tayir Xinjiang internment camps Uyghur genocide
People	Amursana Mingrui Jahangir Khoja Yaqub Beg Zuo Zongtang Yang Zengxin Jin Shuren Sabit Damolla Sheng Shicai Ehmetjan Qasim Wang Zhen Saifuddin Azizi Rebiya Kadeer Nur Bekri Li Zhi Wang Lequan Zhang Chunxian Ilham Tohti Salih Hudayar Sattar Sawut Shirzat Bawudun Ghulam Osman Yaghma Rahile Dawut
Related	Uyghur people Migration to Xinjiang East Turkestan East Turkistan Government in Exile East Turkistan National Awakening Movement Independence movement World Uyghur Congress China–Kazakhstan relations China–Kyrgyzstan relations China–Pakistan relations China–Turkey relations
Category Commons

show v t Ethnic nationalism
Nationalisms	Acholi Afrikaner Albanian in Albania in Kosovo in North Macedonia Andalusian Arab Aragonese Argentine Armenian Assamese Assyrian Asturian Austrian Azerbaijani Balkar and Karachay Baloch Bamar Basque Bavarian Belarusian Bengali Berber Bodo Bosniak Breton Canadian Canarian Cantonese Castilian Catalan Chicano Chinese Circassian Coptic Cornish Corsican Croatian Czech Egyptian English Estonian Filipino Finnish French Galician German in Austria Georgian Greek in Cyprus Han Hazara Hungarian Icelandic Igbo Indian Iranian Iraqi Irish Italian Japanese Jewish Kabyle Khmer Korean Kurdish Lebanese Lezgin Lithuanian Lombard Macedonian Malay Manchurian Mapuche Moldovan Mongolian South Mongolia Montenegrin Naga Neftenya Norwegian Occitan Ogoni Palestinian Pashtun Polish Punjabi Quebec Romani (Gypsy) Romanian Russian Ryukyu Sahrawi Sardinian Scottish Serbian Sicilian Sindhi Sinhalese Somali Slovak Slovenian Spanish Tamil in Sri Lanka Tibetan Tripuri Turkish in Cyprus Ukrainian Ulster Uyghur Valencian Venetian Vietnamese Welsh Zaza
Pan-nationalisms	African Algerian American Arab Asian Australian Bangladeshi Chinese Congolese Celtic European German Germanic Hispanic Iberian Indian Iranian Iraqi Israeli Korean Latin Libyan Mongolian Native American Nigerian Nordic Oceanian Pakistani Russian Scandinavian Slavic Tunisian Turanian Turkic Ugandan
Movements	Alsace independence movement Assam separatist movements Assyrian independence movement Catalan independence movement Champa independence movement East Turkestan independence movement Faroese independence movement Flemish Movement Free Aceh Movement Free Papua Movement Future of Åland Galician independence movement (Spain) Greenlandic independence Guangdong Independence Movement Hawaiian sovereignty movement Inner Mongolian independence movement Kaszëbskô Jednota Māori protest movement Mapuche separatist movement Muslim Independence Movement (Philippines) National Liberation Front of Corsica Patani United Liberation Organisation Ryukyu independence movement Scottish independence Siberian regionalism Silesian Autonomy Movement Székely autonomy movement Taiwan independence movement Tibetan independence movement Vojvodina Autonomist Movement Wallmapuwen Walloon Movement Welsh independence
Concepts	Arakan Artsakh Assyria Azawad Balawaristan Balochistan Bangsamoro Chameria Champa Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Circassia Crimea Hatay State Hazarajat Danzig Donetsk East Turkestan Herzeg-Bosnia Hutu Power Ilirida Karakalpakstan Karelia Katarismo Ketuanan Melayu Kurdistan Lezgistan Luhansk Manchukuo Marathi Abhimaangeet Northern Epirus Ossetia Pashtunistan Republika Srpska Santa Cruz Sápmi Saraikistan Silesia Sindhudesh Székely Land Tamil Eelam Tibet
Other	Racial American Indigenous Black Indigenous Korean White Zionism
Note: Forms of nationalism based primarily on ethnic groups are listed above. This does not imply that all nationalists with a given ethnicity subscribe to that form of ethnic nationalism.