Poles in Lithuania
![]() Polish minority marching in Vilnius (2008) | |
Total population | |
---|---|
200,317 (2011 census),[1] 164,000 (2015 estimates)[2] | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Vilnius County | |
Languages | |
Polish, Lithuanian, Russian, Belarusian | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Roman Catholic[3] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Poles, Lithuanians, Belarusians |
The Polish minority in Lithuania (Polish: Polacy na Litwie, Lithuanian: Lietuvos lenkai), estimated at 164,000 people, according to the Lithuanian estimates of 2015, or 5.6% of the total population of Lithuania, is the largest ethnic minority in the country and the second largest Polish diaspora group among the post-Soviet states after the one in Belarus. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region. They are mostly Slavicized Lithuanians.[4][5][6][7][8][9]
The relationship between Poles and Lithuanians has been long and complex. From 1588 until 1840, the Lithuanian Statutes forbid Polish nobility from purchasing manors in Lithuanian territory, regardless of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth uniting both Poland and Lithuania.[6] Both nations simultaneously lost their independence after the Commonwealth was partitioned in the late 18th century and they regained their independence in the wake of World War I, but hostilities over the ownership of Vilnius and the surrounding region broke out in 1920. The disputes became politically moot after the Soviet Union exercised power over both countries after World War II. Lithuania–Poland relations were tense over the Vilnius Region after Lithuanian independence in 1990.[10][11] Poland was highly supportive[how?] of Lithuanian independence and became one of the first[citation needed] countries to recognize independent Lithuania, despite apprehensions over Lithuania's treatment[clarification needed] of its Polish minority.[12][13][14]
Statistics[]
According to the Lithuanian census of 2011, the Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 200,317 persons or 6.6% of the population of Lithuania. It is the largest ethnic minority in modern Lithuania, the second largest being the Russian minority. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region. Most Poles live in Vilnius County (185,912 people, or 24% of the county's population); Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, has 88,408 Poles, or 16.5% of the city's population. Especially large Polish communities are found in Vilnius District Municipality (52% of the population) and Šalčininkai District Municipality (78%).
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1897[15] | 260,000 | — |
1959[16] | 230,000 | −11.5% |
1979 | 247,000 | +7.4% |
1989 | 258,000 | +4.5% |
2001 | 235,000 | −8.9% |
2011[1] | 200,000 | −14.9% |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Litwa-polacy.png/250px-Litwa-polacy.png)
Lithuanian municipalities with a Polish minority exceeding 15% of the total population (according to the 2011 census) are listed in the table below:
Municipality name | County | Total population | Number of Poles | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vilnius city municipality | ![]() |
535,631 | 88,408 | 16.50% |
Vilnius district municipality | ![]() |
95,348 | 49,648 | 52.07% |
Šalčininkai district municipality | ![]() |
34,544 | 26,858 | 77.75% |
Trakai district municipality | ![]() |
34,411 | 10,362 | 30.11% |
Švenčionys district municipality | ![]() |
27,868 | 7,239 | 25.97% |
Languages[]
Out of the 234,989 Poles in Lithuania, 187,918 (80.0%) consider Polish to be their first language. 22,439 Poles (9.5%) speak Russian as their first language, while 17,233 (7.3%) speak Lithuanian. 6,279 Poles (2.7%) did not indicate their first language. The remaining 0.5% speak various other languages.[18]
Education[]
Absolute numbers with Polish language education at Lithuanian rural schools (1980)[19] | |||
---|---|---|---|
District municipality | Lithuanian | Russian | Polish |
Vilnius / Wilno | 1,250 | 4,150 | 6,400 |
Šalčininkai / Soleczniki | 500 | 2,050 | 3,200 |
Trakai / Troki | 2,900 | 50 | 950 |
Širvintos / Szyrwinty | 2,400 | 100 | 100 |
Švenčionys / Święciany | 1,350 | 600 | 100 |
Varėna / Orany | 6,000 | 0 | 50 |
Absolute number with Polish language education at Lithuanian urban schools was 5,600 |
As of 1980, about 20% of Polish Lithuanian students chose Polish as the language of instruction at school.[19] In the same year, about 60–70% of rural Polish communities chose Polish. However, even in towns with a predominantly Polish population, the share of Polish-language education was less than the percentage of Poles. Even though, historically, Poles tended to strongly oppose Russification, one of the most important reasons to choose Russian language education was the absence of a Polish-language college and university learning in the USSR, and during Soviet times Polish minority students in Lithuania were not allowed to get college/university education across the border in Poland. Only in 2007, the first small branch of the Polish University of Białystok opened in Vilnius. In 1980 there were 16,400 school students instructed in Polish. Their number declined to 11,400 in 1990. In independent Lithuania between 1990 and 2001, the number of Polish mother tongue children attending schools with Polish as the language of instruction doubled to over 22,300, then gradually decreased to 18,392 in 2005.[20] In September 2003, there were 75 Polish-language general education schools and 52 which provided education in Polish in a combination of languages (for example Lithuanian-Polish, Lithuanian-Russian-Polish). These numbers fell to 49 and 41 in 2011, reflecting a general decline in the number of schools in Lithuania.[21] Polish government was concerned in 2015 about the education in Polish.[22]
History[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mapa_rozsiedlenia_ludno%C5%9Bci_polskiej_z_uwzgl%C4%99dnieniem_spis%C3%B3w_z_1916_roku.jpg/250px-Mapa_rozsiedlenia_ludno%C5%9Bci_polskiej_z_uwzgl%C4%99dnieniem_spis%C3%B3w_z_1916_roku.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Mapa_rozsiedlenia_ludno%C5%9Bci_polskiej_na_terenie_Litwy_w_1929.jpg/250px-Mapa_rozsiedlenia_ludno%C5%9Bci_polskiej_na_terenie_Litwy_w_1929.jpg)
Grand Duchy of Lithuania[]
Polish culture began influencing that of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania around the time of the Union of Lublin (16th century), and during the time of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, (1569–1795) much[quantify] of the Lithuanian nobility was Polonized and joined the Polish-Lithuanian szlachta class. Reformation gave another impetus to the spread of Polish, as the Bible and other religious texts were translated from Latin to Polish. In 1697 Polish replaced Ruthenian as a chancellery language.
19th century[]
In the 19th century peasants of Polish nationality[clarification needed] started to appear in Lithuania, mostly by Polonization of Lithuanian peasants[23] in Dzūkija and to a lesser degree in Aukštaitija.
Polish-Lithuanian War[]
From 1918 to 1921 there were several conflicts, such as the activity of the Polish Military Organisation, Sejny uprising (that was met with massive outrage in Lithuania[24]) and a foiled attempt at a Polish coup of the Lithuanian government.[25][26] From the documents stolen from Polish Military Organization headquarters safe in Vilnius and given to Prime Minister of Lithuania Augustinas Voldemaras, it is clear that this plot was directed by Józef Piłsudski himself.[27] The Polish-Lithuanian War and Żeligowski's Mutiny contributed to a worsening of Polish-Lithuanian relations; increasingly Polish-speaking people were viewed with suspicion in Lithuania. The loss of Vilnius was a painful blow to Lithuanian aspirations and identity. The irredentist demand for its recovery became one of the most important elements of socio-political life in interwar Lithuania and resulted in the emergence of hostility and resentment against the Poles.[28]
Interbellum[]
Both governments – in the era nationalism swept through Europe – treated their respective minorities harshly during the interwar period.
In the Republic of Lithuania[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Polish_National_Green_Mountain_School_No._36_students_at_the_Lithuanian_afforestation_festival_with_the_historical_state_flag_of_Lithuania_Vytis_%28Waikymas%29.jpg/220px-Polish_National_Green_Mountain_School_No._36_students_at_the_Lithuanian_afforestation_festival_with_the_historical_state_flag_of_Lithuania_Vytis_%28Waikymas%29.jpg)
In interwar Lithuania, people declaring Polish ethnicity were officially described as Polonized Lithuanians who needed to be re-Lithuanized, Polish-owned land was confiscated, Polish religious services, schools, publications and voting rights were restricted.[29] According to the Lithuanian census of 1923 (not including Vilnius and Klaipėda regions), there were 65,600 Poles in Lithuania (3.2% of the total population).[30] Although according to Polish Election Committee in fact the number of Poles was much higher, about 10% of total population, this number was based on election results.[31] Many Poles in Lithuania were signed in as Lithuanians in their passports, and as a result, they also were forced to attend Lithuanian schools. While the number of Polish-language schools in Lithuania increased from 20 to 30 from 1920 to 1923,[32] and to 78 in 1926,[33] they decreased to 9 by 1940.[32] After the establishment of Valdemaras regime in 1926, 58[33] Polish schools were closed, many Poles were incarcerated, and Polish newspapers were placed under strict censorship.[34]
In the Republic of Central Lithuania, later that of the Second Polish Republic[]
A large portion of the Vilnius area was part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period,[a] particularly the area of the Republic of Central Lithuania, which had a significant Polish speaking population. For example, the Wilno Voivodeship (25% of it is a part of modern Lithuania and 75% - modern Belarus) in 1931 contained 59.7% Polish speakers and only 5.2% Lithuanian speakers.[35]
The Polish government, on the other hand, increased the Polish presence in the Vilnius region. Lithuanian cultural activities in Polish controlled territories were curtailed and closure of Lithuanian newspapers and the arrest of their editors occurred (particularly in the period 1920–1922).[36] In 1927, as tensions between Lithuania and Poland increased, 48 Lithuanian schools were closed and another 11 Lithuanian activists were deported.[37] Following Piłsudski's death in 1935, the Lithuanian minority in Poland again became an object of Polonization policies with greater intensity. 266 Lithuanian schools were closed after 1936 and almost all Lithuanian organizations were banned. Further Polonization ensued as the government encouraged settlement of Polish army veterans in the disputed regions.[38]
After World War II[]
During the World War II expulsions and shortly after the war, the Soviet Union, during its struggle to establish the People's Republic of Poland, forcibly resettled many Poles, who lived in the Lithuanian SSR and were seen as enemies of the state and were sent into Siberia. After the war, in 1945–1948, the Soviet Union allowed 197,000 Poles to leave to Poland; in 1956-1959, another 46,600 were able to leave.[39][40] In the 1950s the remaining Polish minority was a target of several attempted campaigns of Lithuanization by the Communist Party of Lithuania, which tried to ban any teaching in Polish; those attempts, however, were vetoed by Moscow, which saw them as too nationalistic.[41] The Soviet census of 1959 showed 230,100 Poles concentrated in the Vilnius region (8.5% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[42] The Polish minority increased in size, but more slowly than other ethnic groups in Lithuania; the last Soviet census of 1989 showed 258,000 Poles (7.0% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[42] The Polish minority, subject in the past to massive, often voluntary[43] Russification and Sovietization, and recently to voluntary processes of Lithuanization, shows many and increasing signs of assimilation with Lithuanians.[42]
Most of Poles who live southwards of Vilnius speak a form of Belarusian vernacular called there "simple speech",[44] that contains many substratical relics from Lithuanian and Polish.[45]
In independent Lithuania[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Polacy-na-litwie.png/200px-Polacy-na-litwie.png)
The situation of the Polish minority in Lithuania has caused occasional tensions in Polish-Lithuanian relations during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. When Lithuania declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1990, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev sought help from the Polish minority.[46][47] The Polish minority, still remembering the 1950s attempts to ban Polish,[41] was much more supportive of the Soviet Union and afraid that the new Lithuanian government might want to reintroduce the Lithuanization policies.[41] A pro-Moscow anti-independence movement similar to Internationalist movements in Latvia and Estonia was formed in 1989, called the Unity. The organization was supported by many Poles of Lithuania, making it perhaps more popular with the Polish minority than with the Russophone minority of Lithuania.[48] This might have surprised the Poles of Warsaw, then seeking a de-communization in Poland and declaring the question of the Polish minority in Lithuania an internal matter of Lithuania. The pro-Moscow stance of some leading Poles of Lithuania compromised at times the activities of more Lithuania-friendly Poles. At the election to the Soviet Congress of People's Deputies, two Poles (one of them Jan Ciechanowicz) were elected to that body, both pro-Moscow.
According to surveys conducted in the spring of 1990, 47% of Poles in Lithuania supported the pro-Soviet Communist party (in contrast to 8% support among ethnic Lithuanians), while 35% supported Lithuanian independence.[41] The regional authorities in Vilnius and Šalčininkai region, under Polish leadership, with support from Soviet authorities, argued for the establishment of an autonomous region in South Eastern Lithuania, a request that was declined by the Lithuanian government and left lasting resentment among some residents.[47][49] The same Polish regional leaders later voiced support for the Soviet coup attempt of 1991 in Moscow.[49] The Government of Poland, however, never supported the autonomist tendencies of the Polish minority in Lithuania.
Current tensions arise regarding Polish education and the spelling of names. The United States Department of State stated, in a report issued in 2001, that the Polish minority had issued complaints concerning its status in Lithuania, and that members of the Polish Parliament criticized the government of Lithuania over alleged discrimination against the Polish minority.[50] In recent years, the Lithuanian government budgets 40,000 litas (~€10,000) for the needs of the Polish minority (out of the 2 million Eur budget of the Department of National Minorities).[51] In 2006 Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Meller asserted that Polish educational institutions in Lithuania are severely underfunded.[52] Similar concerns were voiced in 2007 by a Polish parliamentary commission.[53] According to a report issued by the European Union Fundamental Rights Agency in 2004, Poles in Lithuania were the second least-educated minority group in Lithuania.[54] The branch of the University of Białystok in Vilnius educates mostly members of the Polish minority.
A report by the Council of Europe, issued in 2007, stated that on the whole, minorities were integrated quite well into the everyday life of Lithuania. The report expressed a concern with Lithuanian nationality law, which contains a right of return clause.[55] The citizenship law was under discussion during 2007; it was deemed unconstitutional on 13 November 2006.[56] A proposed constitutional amendment would allow the Polish minority in Lithuania to apply for Polish passports.[57] Several members of the Lithuanian Seimas, including and Andrius Kubilius, publicly stated that two members of the Seimas who represent Polish minority there (Waldemar Tomaszewski and Michal Mackiewicz) should resign, because they accepted the Karta Polaka.[58]
Lithuanian constitutional law stipulates that everyone (not only Poles) who has Lithuanian citizenship and resides within the country has to write their name in the Lithuanian alphabet and according to the Lithuanian pronunciation; for example, the name Kleczkowski has to be spelled Klečkovski in official documents.[59][60][61][62] Poles who registered for Lithuanian citizenship after the fall of the Soviet Union were forced to accept official documents with Lithuanian versions of their names.[63] On April 24, 2012 the European Parliament accepted for further consideration the petition (number 0358/2011) submitted by a Tomasz Snarski about the language rights of Polish minority, in particular about enforced Lithuanization of Polish surnames.[64][65]
Representatives of the Lithuanian government demanded removal of Polish names of the streets in Maišiagala (Mejszagoła), Raudondvaris (Czerwony Dwór), Riešė (Rzesza) and Sudervė (Suderwa)[66][67] as by constitutional law all names have to be in Lithuanian. Tensions have been reported between the Lithuanian Roman Catholic clergy and its Polish parishioniers in Lithuania.[68][69][70] The Seimas voted against foreign surnames in Lithuanian passports.[71]
The situation is further escalated by extremist[why?] groups on both sides. Lithuanian extremist[neutrality is disputed] nationalist organization Vilnija[47][72][73][74] seeks the Lithuanization[further explanation needed][how?] of Poles living in the Eastern part of Lithuania.[41] The former Polish Ambassador to Lithuania, Jan Widacki, has criticised some Polish organizations in Lithuania as being far-right and nationalist.[75] has criticized Jan Widacki.[76]
In late May 2008, the Association of Poles in Lithuania issued a letter, addressed to the government of Lithuania, complaining about anti-minority (primarily, anti-Polish) rhetoric in media, citing upcoming parliamentary elections as a motive, and asking for better treatment of the ethnic minorities. The association has also filed a complaint with the Lithuanian prosecutor, asking for investigation of the issue.[77][78][79]
Lithuania has not ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[80] 60,000 Poles have signed a petition against an education system reform. A school strike was declared and suspended.[81]
The Law on Ethnic Minorities lapsed in 2010.[82]
In 2014 Šalčininkai district municipality administrative director Bolesław Daszkiewicz was fined about €12,500 for failure to execute a court ruling to remove Lithuanian-Polish street signs.[83] Lucyna Kotłowska was fined €1,700.[84]
Discrimination[]
There are opinions in some Polish media that the Polish minority in Lithuania is facing discrimination. As mentioned above, Petition 0358/2011 on language rights of Poles living in Lithuania was filed with the European Parliament in 2011.[85] Polish Election Action in Lithuania claimed that the education legislation is discriminatory.[86] In 2011, former Polish President Lech Wałęsa criticized the government of Lithuania over its alleged discrimination against the Polish minority.[87]
As of 2018 the government of Lithuania continues to enforce the Lithuanized[dubious ] spelling of surnames of Poles in Lithuania, with some exceptions, despite the 1994 Polish-Lithuanian agreement,[88] and Lithuanian legislative system and the Constitution, see section "Surnames" for details.
The refusal of local authorities against the legislative base of Lithuania to install bilingual road signs in areas densely populated by Lithuanian Poles is at times described by Polish politicians and some Polish media as linguistic discrimination.[86] The removal of a few illegally (without a permit of authorities) placed Polish or bilingual street signs was enforced, and this was felt by the local Poles[quantify] as their discrimination.[89][90]
Culture[]
Surnames[]
The surnames of Lithuanian Poles that are of Polish forms, many of them ending in suffixes -e/owski, -e/owicz, rarer -(ń)ski, and more rare -cki (Lithuanian spelling -e/ovski, -e/ovič, -(n)ski, -cki), are commonly the same as their counterparts in Poland and usually have cognates among Lithuanian surnames, which reflects the Polonization of Lithuanian surnames, which happened during the 16th to 19th century when Polish priests Polonized Lithuanian surnames by adding Polish suffixes.[citation needed] There is a common use of the Balto-Slavic patronymic suffixes: Pol. -e/owski and -e/owicz, Lith. -(i)auskas and -e/avičius, and Belarusian -оўскі and -e/овіч.[citation needed] The suffixes -e/owski, -(ń)ski, and -cki are historically characteristic of Polish names and -e/ovič of Belarusian names.[citation needed] Surnames ending with -e/ovič, which is more frequent among Lithuanians (-e/-avičius), Belarusians, and Lithuanian Poles, is rarer in Poland.[citation needed]
The frequency of Lithuanian-specific surnames among the surnames of Lithuanian Poles is moderate[citation needed]. The sketchy examples[91][92] include anthroponyms of two roots — Talmont, Narvoiš, Bowgerd, Dowgiało, Golmont, Žybort, etc. — with Lithuanian patronymic suffixes – Pieciun, Wickun, Mikalajun, Masojć, Matulaniec — with Lithuanian diminutive suffixes − Jurgiel, Wierbiel, Banel, Jusel, Drawnel, Rekiel, Szuksztul — Lithuanian root — Garszwo, Plokszto, Pażuś, Gejgall, Szyllo, Wojsznis — Lithuanian root with a Slavic suffix — Mieżewicz, Pażusińskaja, Błaszkiewicz, Balsewicz, Dajnowicz, Tarejkowicz, Narkiewicz.[original research?]
Measuring the historical ethnic "charge" of a surname has certain specific features, as, for example, there were many surnames made from the same Christian names and Slavic-form suffixes used by Lithuanian, Belarusian, and Polish speakers.[citation needed] Surnames could also be made from a Lithuanian root and a Slavic suffix, a Belarusian-characteristic root and a Polish-characteristic suffix, and so on.[citation needed]
Name/surname spelling[]
The official spelling of the all non-Lithuanian (hence Polish) name in a person's passport is governed by the 31 January 1991 Resolution of the Supreme Council of Lithuania No. I-1031 "Concerning name and surname spelling in the passport of the citizen of the Republic of Lithuania". There are the following options. The law says, in part:[93]
2. In the passport of a citizen of the Republic of Lithuania, the first name and surname of persons of non-Lithuanian origin shall be spelt in Lithuanian. On the citizen's request in writing, the name and surname can be spelt in the order established as follows:
a) according to pronunciation and without grammatisation (i.e. without Lithuanian endings) or b) according to pronunciation alongside grammatisation (i.e. adding Lithuanian endings).
3. The names and surnames of the persons, who have already possessed citizenship of other State, shall be written according to the passport of the State or an equivalent document available in the passport of the Republic of Lithuania on its issue.
This resolution was challenged in 1999 in the Constitutional Court upon a civil case of a person of Polish ethnicity who requested his name to be entered in the passport in Polish. The Constitutional Court upheld the 1991 resolution. At the same time, it was stressed out citizen's rights to spell their name whatever they like in areas "not linked with the sphere of use of the state language pointed out in the law".[94]
Organizations[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Lithuanian_Seimas_2020_election_first_round_%E2%80%93_SMC_results.svg/300px-Lithuanian_Seimas_2020_election_first_round_%E2%80%93_SMC_results.svg.png)
Poles in Lithuania are organized into several groups and associations.
The Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania – Christian Families Alliance (Lithuanian: Lietuvos lenkų rinkimų akcija, Polish: Akcja Wyborcza Polaków na Litwie) is an ethnic minority-based political party formed in 1994, able to exert significant political influence in the administrative districts where Poles form a majority or significant minority. This party has held seats in the Seimas (Parliament of Lithuania) for the past decade. In the 2020 Lithuanian parliamentary election it received just below 5% of the national vote. The party is more active in local politics and controls several municipal councils.[95] It cooperates with other minorities, mainly the Lithuanian Russian Union.
The Association of Poles in Lithuania (Polish: Związek Polaków na Litwie) is an organization formed in 1989 to bring together Polish activists in Lithuania. It numbers between 6,000 and 11,000 members. Its work concerns the civil rights of the Polish minority and engages in educational, cultural, and economic activities.[96]
Prominent Poles[]
Prior to 1940[]
- Gabriel Narutowicz – president of Poland
- Józef Piłsudski – Polish statesman
- Wiktor Budzyński – politician
- Kanuty Rusiecki – painter
- Michał Pius Römer – lawyer
- Sofija Pšibiliauskienė – writer (Polish: Zofia Przybylewska)
- Marija Lastauskienė – writer (Polish: Maria Lastowska)
- Medard Czobot – politician (Lithuanian: Medardas Čobotas)
Since 1990[]
- Anicet Brodawski – a Polish autonomist leader during the late 1980s
- Darjuš Lavrinovič (Polish: Dariusz Ławrynowicz) – basketball player
- Kšyštof Lavrinovič (Polish: Krzysztof Ławrynowicz) – basketball player
- (Polish: Artur Ludkowski) – former deputy mayor of Vilnius
- (Lithuanian: Jaroslav Neverovič) – former minister of energy, former vice-minister of foreign affairs
- Czesław Okińczyc (Lithuanian: Česlav Okinčic) – politician, journalist
- (Lithuanian: Artur Plokšto) – secretary of Ministry of National Defence
- Leokadia Poczykowska (Lithuanian: Leokadija Počikovska) – politician
- Ewelina Saszenko (Lithuanian: Evelina Sašenko) – singer
- (Lithuanian: Jan Senkevič) –– politician, journalist
- Valdemar Tomaševski (Polish: Waldemar Tomaszewski) – leader of Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania – Christian Families Alliance
- () – (as of 2011) vice-minister of culture in ethnic minorities affairs.[97][98]
- Jarosław Wołkonowski – dean of branch of University of Białystok in Vilnius
- Alina Orłowska – singer (Lithuanian: Alina Orlova)
- Michał Mackiewicz – politician (Lithuanian: Michal Mackevič)
- Irena Litwinowicz – politician (Lithuanian: Irena Litvinovič)
- Zbigniew Balcewicz – politician (Lithuanian: Zbignev Balcevič)
See also[]
- Krajowcy
- Kresy
- Lithuanian minority in Poland
- Pochodnia, Polish cultural association in the interwar Lithuania
- Polish National-Territorial Region
Notes[]
a.^ In 1923, the Council of Ambassadors and the international community (with the exception of Lithuania) recognized Vilnius and the surrounding area as part of Poland.[99][100]
References[]
- Footnotes
- ^ Jump up to: a b Lithuanian 2011 Population Census in Brief. Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. 2012. p. 20. ISBN 978-9955-797-16-6. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ Butkus 2015.
- ^ "Population by religious community to which they attributed themselves and ethnicity". Department of Statistics (Lithuania). Retrieved 2015-11-10.
- ^ Turska 1930, pp. 219-225.
- ^ Lipscomb 1958, p. A4962.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Budreckis 1967.
- ^ Šapoka 2013, p. 216.
- ^ Zinkevičius 2014.
- ^ Clemens 1991, p. 150; In reality, many Poles in Lithuania were the offspring of Polonized Lithuanians or Belarussians
- ^ Evaldas Nekrasas. "Is Lithuania a Northern or Central European Country?" (PDF). Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
In a letter written to Vytautas Landsbergis in December of 1991, Polish President Lech Walesa described Lithuanian-Polish relations as "close to critical."
- ^ Antanas Valionis; Evaldas Ignatavièius; Izolda Brièkovskienë. "From Solidarity to Partnership: Lithuanian-Polish Relations 1988–1998" (PDF). Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review, 1998, issue 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
The interval between the restoration of diplomatic relations in September 1991 and the signing of the Treaty on Friendly Relations and Good Neighborly Cooperation on April 26, 1994 was probably the most difficult period for Lithuanian-Polish relations (there were even assertions that relations in this period were "in some ways even worse than before the war").
- ^ Stephen R. Burant and Voytek Zubek, Eastern Europe's Old Memories and New Realities: Resurrecting the Polish–Lithuanian Union, East European Politics and Societies 1993; 7; 370, online (BEHIND A PAYWALL)
- ^ Sanford 1999, p. 99.
- ^ Lane 2001, p. 209.
- ^ Atlas of Lithuanian SSR, Moscow, 1981 (in Russian), p.129
- ^ Data from Statistikos Departamentas Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2009-08-09
- ^ Source: Population by some ethnicities by county and municipality Archived 2012-03-06 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Population by ethnicity and mother tongue Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Атлас Литовской ССР" 1981, Государственный плановый комитет Литовской ССР. Министерство высшего и среднего специального образования Литовской ССР. Главное управление геодезии и картографии при Совете Министров СССР. Москва 1981.
- ^ Mercator - Education information, documentation, research. The Polish language education in Lithuania see: graph on p.16 (PDF file, 2.2 MB) Accessed 2008-01-14.
- ^ Arvydas Matulionis et al.The Polish Minority in Lithuania Archived 2014-03-09 at the Wayback Machine. ENRI-East Research Report #8. 2011. p. 18.
- ^ "The meeting of deputy ministers of education – Poland–Lithuania". www.msz.gov.pl.
- ^ Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia Vol. 11. 2007.
- ^ Editors: Gintautas Surgailis; Algirdas Ažubalis; Grzegorz Blaszyk; Pranas Jankauskas; Eriks Jekabsons; Waldemar Rezmer; et al. (2003). "Karo archyvas XVIII". Karo Archyvas (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija: 188–189. ISSN 1392-6489.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- ^ Juozas, Rainys (1936). P.O.W. : (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa) Lietuvoje. Kaunas: Spaudos fondas. p. 184.
- ^ Julius, Būtėnas; Mečys Mackevičius (1995). Mykolas Sleževičius: advokatas ir politikas. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. p. 263. ISBN 9986-413-31-1.
- ^ Lesčius, Vytautas (2004). Lietuvos kariuomenė nepriklausomybės kovose 1918-1920. Vilnius: Vilnius University, Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija. p. 269. ISBN 9955-423-23-4.
- ^ MacQueen, Michael (1998). "The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 12 (1): 22–48. doi:10.1093/hgs/12.1.27.
The irredentist campaign tainted Lithuanian society with currents of hatred and revenge directed against the Poles. In fact, the largest social organization in interwar Lithuania was the League for the Liberation of Vilnius (Vilniaus Vadavimo Safunga, or WS), which trumpeted the irredentist line in its magazine "Our Vilnius" (Mūsų Vilnius).
- ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). "Lithuania" (PDF). Stanford University. p. 4. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
Lithuanian nationalists resented demands by Poles for greater cultural autonomy (similar to that granted to the Jewish minority), holding that most of Lithuania's Poles were really deracinated Lithuanians who merely needed to be re-Lithuanianized. Resentments were exacerbated when Lithuanian Poles expressed a desire to "re-unite" the country with Poland. As a result, the nationalizing Lithuanian state took measures to confiscate Polish-owned land. It also restricted Polish religious services, schools, Polish publications, Polish voting rights. Poles were often referred to in the press in this period as the "lice of the nation"
- ^ It was the only census carried out in Lithuania during the interwar period. Vaitiekūnas, Stasys (2006). Lietuvos gyventojai: Per du tūkstantmečius (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. p. 189. ISBN 5-420-01585-4.
- ^ Krivickas, Vladas. "The Polish Minority in Lithuania, 1918-1926". The Slavonic and East European Review. 53: 78–91.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Šetkus, Benediktas (2002). "Tautinės mažumos Lietuvoje". Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Elektroninės leidybos namai. ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original on 2008-03-03. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Łossowski, Piotr (1972). "National minorities in the Baltic states 1919–1940" (PDF). Acta Poloniae Historica (25): 98.
- ^ Richard M. Watt. (1998). Bitter glory: Poland and its fate, 1918-1939. Hippocrene Books. p. 255.
- ^ "Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dnia 9 XII 1931 r". Statystyka Polski (in Polish). D (34). 1939.
- ^ Čepėnas, Pranas (1986). Naujųjų laikų Lietuvos istorija. Chicago: Dr. Griniaus fondas. pp. 655–656.
- ^ Żołędowski, Cezary (2003). Białorusini i Litwini w Polsce, Polacy na Białorusi i Litwie (in Polish). Warszawa: ASPRA-JR. ISBN 8388766767, p. 114.
- ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). "Lithuania" (PDF). Stanford University. p. 4. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
From 1936 till 1939, 266 Lithuanian schools were closed in the entire territory of the former Vilnius Territory. Activities of almost all Lithuanian cultural organizations were banned there. In the areas controlled by Poland, resentments grew as a new settlement of Polish army veterans with economic ties to Poland brought greater Polonization.
- ^
. "Liczebność i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej na Litwie (Numbers and distribution of Polish population in Lithuania)" (in Polish). Retrieved 2008-06-02.
Było to już po masowej "repatriacji" Polaków z Wileńszczyzny, która w latach 1945-1948 objęła 197 tys. Polaków (w tym z Wilna - 107,6 tys.) oraz kolejnej z lat 1956-1959, która umożliwiła wyjazd do Polski 46,6 tys. osób narodowości polskiej.
- ^ Stravinskienė, Vitalija (2004). "Poles In Lithuania From The Second Half Of 1944 Until 1946: Choosing Between Staying Or Emigrating To Poland (English Summary)". Lietuvos istorijos metraštis. 2. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e (2005). Taming Nationalism?: Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 147–148. ISBN 0-7546-3757-3.
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- ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). "Lithuania" (PDF). Stanford University. p. 4. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
For example, in Vilnius where in the Soviet years education in Polish was offered by some 13–14 schools, only 25 percent of the children born to monoethnic Polish families attended Polish schools. About 50% of them chose Russian schools, and only 10% Lithuanian schools.
- ^ Jankowiak: Polacy na Wileńszczyźnie mówią gwarą białoruską (Mirosław Jankowiak (linguist, specialist in Polish and Belarussian): Poles in Vilnius region do speak Belarusian dialect)
- ^ Valerijus Čekmonas, Laima Grumadaitė Kalbų paplitimas rytų Lietuvoje (The distribution of the languages in the east of Lithuania) in Lietuvos rytai; straipsnių rinkinys (The east of Lithuania; the collection of the articles) Vilnius 1993; p. 132; ISBN 9986-09-002-4
- ^ Lithuania. Stanford University, 2006
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-century Eastern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-00774-7, Roger Dale Petersen, Google Print, p.153
- ^ Van Horne, Winston A (1997). Global convulsions: Race, ethnicity, and nationalism at the end of the twentieth century. SUNY Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-7914-3235-8.
Jedność Vienybė.
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- ^ (in Polish) 5 kadencja, 10 posiedzenie, 1 dzień (15.02.2006) 2 punkt porządku dziennego: Informacja Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych o zadaniach polskiej polityki zagranicznej w 2006 r.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ "Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucinis Teismas". Retrieved 25 April 2015.
- ^ Polish press review - Government & Economy. Wirtualna Polska, 10/08/2007
- ^ "Litewski Sejm gra Kartą Polaka". Rzeczpospolita. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
- ^ (in Polish) Mickiewicz czy Mickevičius? WALKA O POLSKIE NAZWISKA NA LITWIE, TVN24, 22.10.2008
- ^ (in Polish) Polak z Wilna walczy o polską pisownię swego nazwiska, Gazeta Wyborcza, 2005-07-25
- ^ (in Polish) Michal Klečkovskis walczy o rodowe nazwisko Kleczkowski
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- ^ Snyder, Tim (1995). "National Myths and International Relations: Poland and Lithuania, 1989-1994". East European Politics and Societies and Cultures. SAGE Publications. 9 (2): 322. doi:10.1177/0888325495009002007. ISSN 0888-3254. S2CID 143672062.
- ^ https://archive.today/20120802030529/http://www.efhr.eu/2012/04/26/the-european-parliament-considers-the-rights-of-the-polish-minority-in-lithuania-to-be-a-very-important-matter-below-is-mr-tomasz-snarskis-account-of-the-committee-on-petitions-mee/?lang=en. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved May 8, 2012. Missing or empty
|title=
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Vilnija to organizacja skrajna, nacjonalistyczna, której głównym celem jest likwidacja skutków wielowiekowej dominacji Polski nad Litwą i tzw. okupacji Wileńszczyzny w międzywojniu.
- ^ Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (September 2004). "Dr Garsva – prezes nacjonalistycznego stowarzyszenia Vilnija (...)". Media Zagraniczne O Polsce (Foreign Media on Poland) (in Polish). XIII (2409 (3162)).
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- ^ (in Polish) Polacy atakowani w mediach, rp.pl, 21-05-2008
- ^ (in Polish) Litwa: Polacy zwracają się do władz o pomoc, interia.pl, 21-05-2008[dead link]
- ^ (in Polish) Związek Polaków na Litwie apeluje o zaprzestanie kampanii przeciwko mniejszościom narodowym, 21-05-2008
- ^ "Liste complète".
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- ^ Some graduates' surnames from Władysław Syrokomla's name school, Vilnius
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- ^ (in Polish) AKCJA WYBORCZA POLAKÓW NA LITWIE. Encyklopedia Interia. Last accessed 20 January 2007.
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External links[]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polish minority in Lithuania. |
- POLES IN LITHUANIA FROM THE SECOND HALF OF 1944 UNTIL 1946: CHOOSING BETWEEN STAYING OR EMIGRATING TO POLAND by VITALIJA STRAVINSKIENĖ, The Lithuanian Institute of History, January 19, 2006
- Chronology for Poles in Lithuania
- The Polish language in education in Lithuania
- Discrimination in Lithuania
- Observance of Polish minority rights in Lithuania Report by «Wspólnota Polska», Union of Poles in Lithuania and the Association of Teachers of Polish Schools in Lithuania, 2009
- The Polish national minority in Lithuania : three reports later.
- Organizacje Polonii na Litwie (Organizations of Polonia in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Polonia na świecie (Polonia worldwide) with section on Lithuania (in Polish)
- "Polacy na Litwie" (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2005-04-03. (Poles in Lithuania)
- Losy ludności polskiej na Litwie (Fate of Polish population in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Jan Sienkiewicz, Przestrzeganie praw polskiej grupy etnicznej w Republice Litewskiej (Respecting the rights of the Polish minority in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Polacy na Litwie w prawie (Lithuanian law on minorities) (in Polish)
- Srebrakowski A., Rozwój polskojęzycznej prasy na terenie Litwy po 1944 r. Archived 2019-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
- A. Srebrakowski, Szkolnictwo polskojęzyczne na Litwie 1944-1991 Archived 2019-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
- Srebrakowski A., Polacy w Litewskiej SRR Archived 2020-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
- Srebrakowski A., Statystyczny obraz Polaków z Litwy.
- Ethnic groups in Lithuania
- Polish minorities
- Lithuanian people of Polish descent
- Lithuania–Poland relations