Rashidun cavalry

The Mobile Guard (Arabic: طليعة متحركة, Tulay'a mutaharikkah or Arabic: الحرس المتحرك, al-Haras al-Mutaharikkah) or also nicknamed Marching army( جيش الزحف, "Jaish al‐Zaḥf") was the cavalry forces of Rashidun army during the Muslim conquest of Syria, under the command of Khalid ibn Walid. Khalid had organized a military staff – a simple beginning of what later in military history would emerge as the general staff. He had collected from all the regions in which he had fought – Arabia, Iraq, Syria and Palestine.

This shock cavalry division played important roles to the victories in Battle of Chains, Battle of Walaja, Battle of Ajnadayn, Battle of Firaz, Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, Siege of Damascus, Battle of Yarmouk, Battle of Hazir and the Battle of Iron Bridge against the Byzantine and the Sassanid.^[1] Later, the splinter of this cavalry division under Al-Qa'qa ibn Amr at-Tamimi also involved in the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, Battle of Jalula, and the Second siege of Emesa.^[1]

This cavalry unit almost certainly rode the legendary purebred Arabian horse, by fact the quality breeding of horses were held so dearly by the early caliphates who integrated traditions of Islam with their military practice.^[2][3][4][5] These horses are also pretty common breed amongs Arab community during 6th to 7th century.^[2]

Later, after the Early Muslim conquests, portions of the Rashidun cavalry rebelled against central caliphate in Kharijites revolutionary movements.^[6] Historian Al-Jahiz remarked the Kharijites were feared for their cavalry charge with their lances which could break any defensive line, and almost never lose when pitted against an equal number of opponents.^[6] These Kharijites sects, believed by most scholars of Islam started by  [ar], known as Dhu Khuwaishirah at-Tamimi,^[7] Their rebellions would plagued the rest history of Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad, and Abbasid with endemic rebellions.

History[]

Muslim warrior during rashidun caliphate

The cavalry corps which called al-Haras al-Mutaharikkah, that mentioned by Mahmud Shakir for their distinguishing role in the battle of Yarmuk,^[8] first recorded use of this mounted force was during the Siege of Damascus (634). The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed during the Battle of Yarmuk (636 AD) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the importance and ability of his cavalry, used them to turn the course of events at every critical instance of the battle. With their ability to engage and disengage, and turn back and attack again from the flank or rear, the Mobile Guard inflicted a shattering defeat of the Byzantine army. This strong mobile striking force was often used in later years as an advance guard.^{[9][page needed]} It could rout opposing armies with its greater mobility that gave it an upper hand against any Byzantine army. One of the victories of the mobile guard was at Battle of Hazir in 637 CE under the command of Khalid, in which not a single Byzantine soldier survived.^[10]

After the decisive victory at the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634 CE, Khalid, from his army of Iraq, which after Ajnadayn numbered about 8000 men, organised a force of 4000 horsemen, which the early historians refer to as The Army of Sharpeners.^{[9][page needed][10]} Khalid kept this force under his personal command. Aside from Horses for offensive means, Rashidun cavalry also ride camels as transportation and defensive battles, as camels can repel even the enemy heavy cavalry such as Byzantine and Sassanid cataphracts, while the large frames of Camels can tackle those heavy cavalry powerful charge.^[11] The Mobile guard remained under the personal command of Khalid ibn Walid for about four years (634-638 CE) until Khalid was dismissed from army by Caliph Umar after the completion of the conquest of the Levant.

With the dismissal of Khalid this powerful cavalry regiment was dismantled. One of its brilliant commanders Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi had been sent to the Persian front in 637 CE along with reinforcements for the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, in which he played an important part. A part of it was later sent to the Persian front as reinforcements for the Muslim conquest of Persia. Many of its members died in the plague during 639-640 CE which killed approximately 25,000 Muslims in Syria. This included many sub-commanders of the mobile guard like Zirrar ibn Azwar, those who survived accompanied the army under the command of Amr ibn al-'As to conquer Egypt.

Later, portions of Caliphate horsemens under  [ar], a Tamim tribe chieftain and veteran of the Battle of Hunayn which has been brought by Rashidun general named Arfajah, rebelled against the caliphate.^[12][13] Hurqus joined with another troublesome warrior tribes from Bajila tribe,^[14] which led by Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, who participated in the early conquests of Persia under .,^[15] and later rebelled against caliphate of Ali in the battle of Nahrawan. these seditionist warriors were collectively known as Kharijites.

Meanwhile, as Muslim conquests of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula progressed.^[16] they also brought the cultural assimilasions of horsebreeding to Africa and Spain in the form of Arabian horses, Barb horses, and by lesser extends, the Turkoman horse^[17]

Unit characteristics[]

Cavalry were highly regarded by the military rulers of early Medina, as the early Medina Islam constitution and the Caliphates' put emphasis by giving the cavalry troopers at least two portions of war spoils and booty compared to regular soldier, while regular infantry only received only a single portion.^[18] The core of the caliphate's mounted division was an elite unit which early Muslim historians named Tulai'a Mutaharrika (طليعة متحركة), or the mobile guard.^[1]

Initially, the nucleus of the mobile guard formed from veterans of the horsemens under Khalid ibn al-Walid during the conquest of Iraq. They consisted half of the forces brought by Khalid from Iraq to Syria 4.000 soldiers out of 8.000 soldiers.^[1] This shock cavalry division played important roles in the victories at the Battle of Chains, Battle of Walaja, Battle of Ajnadayn, Battle of Firaz, Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, Siege of Damascus, Battle of Yarmouk, Battle of Hazir and the Battle of Iron Bridge against the Byzantine and the Sassanid.^[1] Later, a splinter of this cavalry division under Al-Qa'qa ibn Amr at-Tamimi was also involved in the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, Battle of Jalula, and the Second siege of Emesa.^[1]

Equipment[]

Chain mail

Contrary to popular belief among historians, that the Arabians during 6th century were unarmored light cavalry raiders, Eduard Alofs argues that the Arab horsemen, whether they are Rashiduns, Ghassanids, or Lakhmids were in fact heavily armoured elite nobles,^{[Notes 1]} akin to Cataphract in armors.^{[Notes 2]} The Muslim army in time of Muhammad also had a particular type of body armour called "al-Kharnaq", which was characterized as flexible.^[21]

For their armaments, the Early Arabic horsemens are theoretically used the following arms in battle:

• Arab sword with various type, one of most famous type were as-Sayf al-Qala'i, a curved sword type.^[21] Muhammad owned this type of sword which preserved in modern-day in Topkapı Palace museum, the sword blade were around 100 cm length which has inscription in its hilt : "Hadha Sayf al-Mashrafi li Bayt Muhammad Rasulullah". The Indian manufactured swords which used by Arabs during Muhammad era were straight and double edged.^[22] certain cavalry commanders such as Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, also known to possess multiple swords.^[23][24] while Khalid ibn al-Walid reportedly brought at least nine swords during single battle.
• Lance used by Rashidun cavalry by swinging them during close-combat, such as in the record of record of Tabari.^[25] Early caliphate cavalry held their Lance overhead posture with both hands.^[26][26] A personal lance belong to Muhammad consisted a lance which head was made of brass.^[27]
• Mounted archery with flying gallop was practiced casually by Rashidun caliphate onwards,^[28][29] as it was used by early Muslim warriors such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, who are reported as an expert for retreating mounted shot^[30] Their quivers were reportedly contained 50 arrows.^[27] Leaders and commanders also obliged the usage of bows, as there are records of Muhammad himself of usage of the bow during the battle of Uhud.^[27]
• Javelins also used by caliphate horsemens their weapon. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, a seasoned Muhajirun and early convert who always brought horses during battles,^[31] were recorded have killed his enemies with javelin in at least in two occasions during his life. The first occasion when he recorded has killed Quraish nobleman Ubaydah ibn Sa'id from Umayyad clan during the Battle of Badr, who was wearing a full set of armor and Aventail that protected his entire body and face.^[18] Zubayr hurled his javelin aiming at the unprotected eye of Ubaydah and killed him immediately.^[18] The second occasion is during the Battle of Khaybar, Zubayr fought in a duel against a Jewish nobleman Yassir which Zubayr killed with a powerful javelin strike.^[18] Firsthand witnesses reported that Zubayr brandishing himself across the battlefield during the Battle of Hunayn while hung two javelins in his back.^[18]
• Rounded shield to protect the rider from arrows.^[32]

Regarding their defensive and supporting equipments, despite there is not yet archeological proof of Arabian armory before the era of Ayyubid and Mamluk found, literary sources indicates the Arabs already using body armour, such as coat of Chain mail called Dir that was found from the literary sources from the era before the advent of Islam,^[33] or as an Umayyad poetries that mentioned the armour of the caliphate army during caliph Umar until Umayyad era.^[32] During the Battle of Uhud, Jami'at Tirmidhi recorded Zubayr ibn al-Awwam testimony that prophet Muhammad wearing two layers of mail coat.^[34][35] However, there is still not yet archaeological founding of Arabic armor in such time.^[36] Waqidi recorded the Qurayshite Arab horsemens also using horse armor which held by Crupper on the back of the horse, which are used by a Qurayshite warrior named Hubayr ibn Abi Wahb al Makhzumi during the battle of the Trench.^[37]

The Muslim Arabic cavalry during early caliphate already known stirrups. However, caliph Umar forbid or even neglect the use of stirrups for his soldiers as riding without stirrups could train riders better for horsemanship.^[38][39] Despite the neglection of stirrups,^[40][41] Arab cavalry, especially the Kharijites group who will revolt later after the conquest, were feared for their fearless charge which, Adam Ali mentioned from al-Jahiz, described as "can throw any defense line into disarray".^[6] Military history reconstructors like Marcus Junkelmann has practiced in historical reenactment that mounted close combat specialists like Mubarizuns could fight effectively on top of their mounts even without stirrups.^[42] This is used by Alofs as an argument to debuff the majority historian beliefs that horsemen cannot fight effectively in close combat if they rode their horse without stirrups.^[42]

Pre-Islamic evidence[]

Inscriptions of Hima mountain

David Nicolle brought the theory of Pre-Islamic Arabia Arabic-speaking peoples adoption of armoury among horsemen as he quoted Claude Cahen, who categorically stated that horse armour was very common in the early Islamic period.^[43] Nicolle thought those Arabians were exposed to external culture influences such as from external military influence from Turkish Uyghurs, originating in Xinjiang, which then spread further to Iran and beyond, eventually reaching the Middle east,^[43] Nicolle divided the evidence from three pinpoint areas:

1. Dura-Europos, located in Syrian borderlands of the Byzantine Empire, where horse armour of bronze scales, Roman Syria or Parthian origin, from 3rd century AD are found.^[43] Although Nicolle dismissed the Byzantines as being unlikely as heavily armoured cavalry were not Byzantine tradition in the first place, and only adopted such in the late era, unlike the Persians.^[43]
2. Shabwa, Yemen, as Nicole pointed there is carved plaque depicting armoured cavalry, both the rider and the horse, which Nicolle surmissed originated from 6th–early 7th AD, and theoretically were Asawiran Sassanids heavy cavalry who garrisoned Yemen for decades before the expansion of Islam circa 570 to 630 AD.^[43] While Ogden pointed out Yemen were also known as an important coastal sea trade between India and the Red Sea since ancient times and were exposed to the latter's metallurgy.^[44] the team of Bir Hima archeology excavation and researchers has found southwestern edge of the modern city of Najran, a depiction of a heavily built horse similar in form to the extinct Nisean horse breed(which rode by Zaweyan elite troops of Sassanids) of the 6th century BCE, which according to the team, indicating Persian influence.^[45]
3. Wadi Aday, 8 km south of Muttrah, Oman.,^[43] where Nicolle pointed out many armoured horsemen carvings, armed with spears and a sword, that, according to Nicole, traditionally identified as Arabs.^[43] according to researchers, south-eastern Arabia including Oman has for a long time been exposed to Iron since the Iron Age, which presumably is from external influence such as India, just as for Yemen.^[46]

Aside from those three locations that are pointed by Nicolle,^[43] Bir Hima researchers team also found evidence of Arabian armoured cavalry in the form of hundreds, if not thousands of petroglyphs in Bir Hima, which is located about 30 km northeast of Najran.^[45] The excavation sites are dominated by images of mounted cavalry that are highly stylized, which the researchers theorized riding Arabian breed horses.^[45] The cavalrymen are armed with long lances, swords, Sayf swords and khanjar daggers which are worn in the waist.^[45] The team also notice that there are indication the carvings of those horsemen probably wearing something like helmets and cutlasses.^[45]

Military standard[]

Before the advent of Islam, banners as tools for signaling had already been employed by the pre-Islamic Arab tribes and the Byzantines. Early Muslim army naturally deployed banners for the same purpose.^[47] Early Islamic flags, however, greatly simplified its design by using plain color, due to the Islamic prescriptions on aniconism.^[48] According to the Islamic traditions, the Quraysh had a black liwāʾ and a white-and-black rāya.^[49] It further states that Muhammad had an ʿalam in white nicknamed "the Young Eagle" (Arabic: العقاب al-ʿuqāb); and a rāya in black, said to be made from his wife Aisha's head-cloth.^[50] This larger flag was known as " the Banner of the Eagle" (Arabic: الراية العقاب al-rāyat al-ʻuqāb), as well as "the Black Banner" (Arabic: الراية السوداء ar-rāyat as-sawdāʾ).^[51] Other examples are the prominent Arab military commander 'Amr ibn al-'As using red banner,^[52] and the Khawarij rebels using red banner as well.^[53] Banners of the early Muslim army in general, however, employed a variety of colors, both singly and in combination.^[54]

According to modern historian David Nicolle in Warrior magazine series published by Osprey Publishing, as the caliphate army were mainly consisted of tribal based corps and divisions, most of this following flags were appeared in the Battle of Siffin on both sides:

• 

  The black standard

• 

  The red standard that used by Amr ibn al-As and later by the Kharijites

• 

  The Ansars flag

• 

  The Quraysh flag

• 

  The Quraysh second flag

• 

  The Quraysh third flag

• 

  The Taym tribe flag

• 

  The Thaqif tribe flag

• 

  The Hawazin tribe flag

• 

  The Shayban tribe flag

• 

  The Muharib tribe flag

• 

  The Ghani & Bahila tribe flag

• 

  The Tayy tribe flag

• 

  The Kinanah tribe flag

• 

  The Kalb tribe flag

• 

  The Nukha tribe flag

• 

  The Ju'fa tribe flag

• 

  The Judham tribe flag

• 

  The Hudhayl tribe flag

• 

  The Hamdan tribe flag

• 

  The Dhuhal tribe flag

• 

  The 'Akk tribe flag

• 

  The first Ajal tribe flag

• 

  The second Ajal tribe flag

• 

  The Khuza'a tribe flag

• 

  The Yashkur tribe flag

• 

  The Hanzala tribe flag

• 

  The Sa'd ibn Zayd Manat tribe flag

• 

  The Kindah tribe flag

• 

  The Bajila tribe flag

• 

  The Khath'am tribe flag

• 

  The first Taghlib tribe flag

• 

  The second Taghlib tribe flag

• 

  The Sulaym tribe flag

• 

  The Quda'ah tribe flag

• 

  The flag of the tribes from Hadhramawt

Training, tactics & strategy[]

One of distinguishing role which characterized by the Mobile Guard cavalry were their task to plugging the gaps between Muslim ranks to avoid enemy penetration, which they practiced during the battle of the Yarmuk.^[8]

During the reign of caliph Umar. The caliph instructed to establish systematic military program to maintain the quality of caliphate mounts. Salman enlisted most of the steeds within realm of caliphate to undergo such steps:

1. Recording number and quality of horses available.^[55]
2. Differences between the Arabian purebreed and the hybrid breeds was to be carefully noted.^[55]
3. Arabic structural Medical examination and Hippiatrica on each horses in regular basis including isolation and quarantine of sick horses.^[55]
4. Regular training between horses and their masters to achieve the disciplined communication between them.^[55]
5. Collective response training of the horses done in general routine.^[55]
6. Individual response training of the horses on advanced level.^[55]
7. Endurance and temperament training to perform in crowded and noisy place.^[56][55]

Meanwhile, technical training method of each horsemen in this cavalry was recorded in al-Fann al-Harbi In- Sadr al-Islam and Tarikh Tabari:

1. Riding horses with saddles.^[55]
2. Riding horses without saddles.^[55]
3. Sword fighting without horses^[55]
4. Horse charging with stabbing weapons.^[55]
5. Fighting with swords from the back of a moving horse.^[55]
6. Archery.^[55]
7. Mounted archery while the horse running.^[55]
8. Close combat while changing their seat position on the back of moving horse, facing backwards.^[55]

At the end of the program, both riders and horses obligated to enlisted in formal competition sponsored by Diwan al-Jund which consisted into two category:

1. Racing competition to measure the speed and stamina of each hybrids.^[28] This racing activities are also encouraged by caliphate commanders such as Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah who himself also engaged in such sport.^[57]
2. Acrobat competition to measure the ability of the horses for difficult maneuvers during war.^[28]

Additionally, In the wartime, there are special trainings established cavalry divisions were obliged to undertook:

• simulated combat operation raids during the winter and summer seasons, known as Tadrib al-Shawati wa al-Sawd'if, which were intended to maintain the quality of each cavalry forces, while also maintain the pressures towards the Byzantines, Persians, and other caliphate enemies while there is no major military campaign.^[28]
• Special drills that required for particular operasion, such as during the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, The Muslim cavalry undergo drill training that involved by maneuvering their horses nearby elephant dummy statues, to train the horses so they did not afraid during the battle as they were tasked to charge against Sasanian Empire elephant corps^[58]

Cavalry archery[]

Alof theorized "Mubarizun" elite division, a unit specialized in close combat duels, also used archery in close-combat duels for maximum arrow penetration against opponent armor.^[59] This select few apparatus of mounted soldiers who particularly skilled in duel were tasked to find the enemy generals or field officers, in order to kidnap or slay them in close combat, so the enemy will lose their commanding figure amidst of battle.^[60] Aside from fighting with swords, lances, or maces, these duel specialists also possessed a unique ability to use archery in close combat, where Alofs theorized that in mid range about five meters from the adversary, the duelists will exchange his lance with his bow and shoot the enemy from close range to achieve maximum penetration, while the duelist held the lance strapped between right leg and saddle.^[61] In fact, James Hardy theorized based on his quote from John Haldon and Romilly Jenkins, one of the decisive main factor for the Rashidun historical victory in battle of Yarmuk were due to their superb cavalry archers.^[62] While James Francis LePree has wrote that the factor of "unquestionably great cavalry skill of the Arabs' horse archers" during the battle of Yarmuk.^[63]

Cavalry archers also used to bait the opposing army from their position, which were reported by Tabari during the battle of Nahavand, when Tulayha planned to lure the bulk of enemy forces by sending armoured cavalry archers forth and shooting them while retreating to bait them to the favorable terrain for Muslim army to fight the Sassanids.^[64]

Cavalry usage during siege warfare[]

The tactics used by Iyad ibn Ghanm in his Mesopotamian campaign were similar to those employed by the Muslims in Palestine, though in Iyad's case the contemporary accounts reveal his specific modus operandi, particularly in Raqqa.^[65] The operation to capture that city entailed positioning cavalry forces near its entrances, preventing its defenders and residents from leaving or rural refugees from entering.^[65] Concurrently, the remainder of Iyad's forces cleared the surrounding countryside of supplies and took captives.^[65] These dual tactics were employed in several other cities in al-Jazira.^[65] They proved effective in gaining surrenders from targeted cities running low on supplies and whose satellite villages were trapped by hostile troops.^[65]

Ubadah ibn al-Samit, another Rashidun commander, is also recorded to have developed his own distinct strategy which involved the use of cavalry during siege warfare. During a siege, Ubadah would dig a large hole, deep enough to hide a considerable number of horsemen near an enemy garrison, and hid his cavalry there during the night. When the sun rose and the enemy city opened their gates for the civilians in the morning, Ubadah and his hidden cavalry then emerged from the hole and stormed the gates as the unsuspecting enemy could not close the gate before Ubadah's horsemen entered. This strategy was used by Ubadah during the Siege of Laodicea^[66][67] and Siege of Alexandria.^[66]

Mounts[]

Notables among Arab Muslims, especially those of Companions of the Prophet, were recorded possessed multiple horses & camels privately, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, who reportedly possessed at least 16 horses which all named.^[68] This practice of possessing multiple horses were not unlike Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, the cavalry commander who had mythical reputation, also had at least four named horses of his own,^[23] which number grown further as later the governor of Basra rewarded Amr with foal pregnant mare with preserved pedigree from al-Ghabra type (dust colored type).^[69] Meanwhile, other warriors like Zubayr ibn al-Awwam owns a swooping number of 1,000 horses in his private stable.^[70] while on the other hand, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf reportedly possessed hundreds of horses and 1,000 camels, ^[71] and Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar, who also reportedly owns about 1,000 camels even before embracing Islam and pledge his allegiance to the Caliphate.^{[Notes 3]}

Horses[]

White Arabian horse

Caliphate Arabian noble cavalry^{[Notes 4]} almost certainly rode the legendary purebred Arabian horse, by fact the quality breeding of horses were held so dearly by the early caliphates who integrated traditions of Islam with their military practice.^[2][3][4][5] The soldiers who possessed the pureblood Arabian horse even had the right to acquire bigger war spoils after battles than the soldiers who used other breeds or hybrid breed horses.^[73]

These horses are also pretty common breed amongs Arab community during 6th to 7th century.^[2] This special breed of steed were famous for their speed which allowed for large-scale conquests of the caliphate during their early days.^[2][38] The Arabian breed is forged by the harsh life in desert and raised by nomadic Bedouins who spread it throughout their travels, and erect it as a symbol of social and cultural status, in parallel with a martial selection.^[74] This breed are known as a hot-blooded breed that are known for their competitiveness. Long withstanding periods of Arabian nomadic society closeness with the horses also contributed to fertility of equestrian masters which produced best class horse breed in Arabia.^[75] The phenomenal speed, stamina, animal cognition, along with very well documented pedigrees quality even for modern era standard,^[76][77] caused the Rashidun leaders to initiate a formal programs to distinguish them from inferior hybrids with unknown pedigrees including horses recently captured from the defeated enemies.^[28]

earlier attempts of Muslim horse-breeding were found in the aftermath of Siege series of Khaybar fotresses when the Muslims acquired massive booties of horses from the Jewish castles. In response prophet Muhammad personally instructed the breeding separations between purebred Arabian and the hybrid-class steeds.^[56] in later cases, such tradition of glorifying the breed of pure Arabian steeds are recorded by caliphate soldiers during the conquest of Persia.^[78] While another detailed example were Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, who owned many horses.^[70] The most famous Arabian horse that owned and being named by az-Zubayr were al-Ya'sūb, which he ride in the Battle of Badr.^[79] al-Ya'sūb pedigree was preserved carefully by az-Zubayr's clansmens, banu Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza branch from Quraysh tribe, who create a system of "horse-clan", the "horse-clan" system of recording their horses ancestry and lineage are meant carefully maintain the horses genealogical purity and quality while also manage to keep the steeds genealogy traceable, as in al-Ya'sūb case, who belong to a horse-clan namely al-Asjadi.^[80] the al-Asjadi horse clan were keep by az-Zubayr for generations.^[80]

Al-Baihaqi transmitted in Shuab al-iman about "Birdhaun breed", or horse of poor breed that are hailing not Arabian breed, more specifically a Turkish horses breed, which caliph Umar warned his governors against riding such horses.^[81] According to Bayhaqi, prohibiting a breed considered second-rate makes it obvious that to ride horses of the best Arab breed would be even a greater sign of pride.^[81] The Arabian theory were justified in the medieval tradition as Mamluk Furusiyya treatises of hippiatry distinguished lineages of Arabian horses were named based on their geographical provenance (Hejaz, Najd, Yemen, Bilād al‑Shām, Jezirah, Iraq), the noblest breed, according to Ibn al‑Mundhir were the Hijazi breed.^[82]

Mahranite cavalry[]

Map of contemporary Yemen showing Al Mahrah Governorate from where Mahri tribes hailed.

Caliphate cavalry recruited from Al-Mahra tribe were known for their military prowess and skilled horsemen that often won battles with minimal or no casualties at all, which Amr ibn al As in his own words praised them as "peoples who kill without being killed",^{[Notes 5]}

Ibn Abd al-Hakam remarks their relative minimal casualties whenever engaged in military operations. Amr was amazed by these proud warriors for their ruthless fighting skill and efficiency During Muslim conquest where they spearheaded Muslim army during the Battle of Heliopolis, the Battle of Nikiou, and Siege Alexandria.^[83] Their commanders, Abd al-sallam ibn Habira al-Mahri were entrusted by 'Amr ibn al-'As to lead the entire Muslim army during the Arab conquest of north Africa. Abd al-sallam defeated the Byzantine imperial army in Libya, and throughout these campaigns Al-Mahra were awarded much land in Africa as recognition of their bravery.^[83] When Amr established the town of Fustat, he further rewarded Al-Mahri members additional land in Fustat which then became known as Khittat Mahra or the Mahra quarter.^[83] This land was used by the Al-Mahra tribes as a garrison.^[83]

During the turmoil of Second Fitna, more than 600 Mahranites were sent to North Africa to fight Byzantines and the Berber Kharijite revolts.^[83]

Camels[]

Aside from horses, Rashidun cavalry used camels as their means of transportation as they want to save their horses energy, while outside the battle, the camels were used to transport the provisions of the soldiers, as each soldiers of the caliphate were expected to provide his own provisions at the very least outside the main army provided by the leaders or wealthy soldiers.^[27]

During the battle, the Rashidun cavalry immediately change their ride to the horses, while their camels are hobbled along the defensive perimeters of Muslim army.^[11] Their camels are used defensively during battle as the bulk of camel lines perimeter will blunt the enemy heavy cavalry charge^[11] Sometimes, these Arab cavaliers also recorded to ride their camels simultaneously with their horse in one battle depending on the situation, as recorded in the report about Muslim horsemen named Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, when he fought on the Battle of the Yarmuk, at one point he is reported charging with his horse, breaching the Byzantine army line.^[84] While in the same battle, he also reported has changed his ride to camel, while fighting defensively and praying at the same time.^[85]

Hima breeding ground[]

Arabian Camel herd grazing near the Riyadh River, southeast Diriyah

The history of Hima camel breedings were rooted to the early Islam, when Muhammad himself instructed that some of private property at the outskirts of Medina was transformed into Hima.^[86] Another reason the caliph Umar moved Hima from Medina was the increasing military demand for camels for which the lands near Medina no longer sufficed.^[87]

According to classical Muslim sources, caliph Umar acquired some fertile land in Arabia which were deemed fit for large-scale camel breeding to be established as Hima, government-reserved land property used as pasture to raise camels that were being prepared to be sent to the front line for Jihad conquests.^[88] Early sources recorded that the Hima of Rabadha and Diriyah produced 4.000 war camels annually during the reign of Umar, while during the reign of Uthman, both Hima lands further expanded until al-Rabadha Hima alone could produce 4.000 war camels.^[89] At the time of Uthman death, there were said to be around 1.000 war camels already prepared in al-Rabadhah.^[89] Modern Islamic studies researchers theorized institution of Hima by caliph Umar, was inspired by the earliest Hima established in Medina during the time of the prophet Muhammad.^[87] Another known Hima breeding grounds during the caliphate were in Kufa, which supervised by Rabi' al Kinda, father in law of the son of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, governor of Kufa during caliphate of Umar and Uthman.^[90]

Rashidun army camels also bore offspring while marching to the battle, as Tabari recorded the Rashidun vanguard commander , testified before the Battle of al-Anbar, the camels belongs to his soldiers were about to give birth. However, since the Aqra' would not halt the operation, he instructed his soldiers to carry the newborn camels on the rumps of adult camels.^[91]

Emergency rations & Khalid legendary camels march[]

A map showing one of a series of possible itineraries of Khalid's march to Syria from Iraq

Desperate caravaners are known to have consumed camels' urine and to have slaughtered them when their resources were exhausted.^[92]

Around 634, after the clash at the Battle of Firaz against intercepting Byzantine forces, caliph Abu Bakr immediately instructed Khalid to reinforce the contingents of Abu Ubaydah, Amr ibn al-As, Mu'awiyah, and Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan which started to invade Syria. Khalid immediately started his nearly impossible journey with his elite forces after leaving Muthanna ibn Haritha as his deputy in Iraq and instructed his soldiers to make each camel drink as much as possible before they started the six-day nonstop march without resupply.^{[93][Notes 6]} In the end, Khalid managed to reach Suwa spring and immediately defeated the Byzantine garrison in Arak, Syria,^[95] who were surprised by Khalid's force's sudden emergence from the desert.^[96]

According to Hugh Kennedy, historians across the ages assessed this daring journey with various expressions of amazement. Classical Muslim historians praised the marching force's perseverance as a miracle work of Allah, while most western modern historians regard this as solely the genius of Khalid.^[97] It is Khalid, whose, in Hugh Kennedy's opinion, imaginative thinking effected this legendary feat.^[97] The historian Moshe Gil calls the march "a feat which has no parallel" and a testament to "Khalid's qualities as an outstanding commander".,^[98] while Laura Veccia Vaglieri dismissed the adventure of Khalid as never having happened as Vaglieri thought such journey were logically impossible.^[99] Nevertheless, military historian Richard G. Davis explained that Khalid imaginatively employed camel supply trains to make this journey possible.^[93] Those well hydrated camels that accompanied his journey were proven before in the Battle of Ullais for such a risky journey.^[100] Khalid resorted to slaughtering many camels for provisions for his desperate army.^[93]

Mahranite camelier corps[]

Amr ibn al-As led a ruthless cavalry corps from tribes of Al-Mahra who were famous for their "invincible battle skills on top of their mounts", during the conquests of Egypt and north Africa^{[Notes 7]}. Al-Mahra tribes were experts in camelry and famed for their high-class Mehri camel breed which were renowned for their speed, agility and toughness.^[83]

Legacy[]

Modern historians and genealogists concluded that the stocks of early caliphate cavalry army that conquered from the western Maghreb of Africa, Spain to the east of Central Asia are drawn from the stock of fierce Bedouin pastoral nomads who take pride of their well-guarded mares genealogy,^{[101][102][103][104]} and called themselves the "People of the lance".^{[Notes 8]} Thus, this caused many aspect of influences, whether the Animal breedings^[105] or another social and religious development within the territories they have conquered,^[106] Including Indian subcontinent.^[107]

Horsebreedings[]

Gray Arabian mare in Egypt.

Mughal horse headgear, collection from Lamongan Museum, Indonesia

Carl Raswan riding Anazeh tribe horse

Amir Saud mounted army 18-19 AD

Ikhwan camel warriors during Saudi war

Barb horse "Fantasia" ridings in Morocco

The Mammals beast of burden brought by these desert warriors on horseback in massive scale unanimously agreed by historians and breeding researchers as bringing some degree of cultural influences towards their subjugated lands, whether it by the massive scale utilization of dromedaries,^[104][108] or their horses, as Muslim conquests of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula brought large numbers of Arabian horses,^[16] along with Barb may have come with the Umayyad Caliphate army who settled in the Guadalquivir valley, as both the Arabian strain were brought by the Muslim empires to Europe, which implied by Margareth Greely, through military mean.^[105]

The Barb horse spread theory were supported by Helen Goldstein who theorized about how the conqueror of Spain, Tariq ibn Ziyad brought the Barb horses along with the Arabian strain during the Muslim conquest of Iberia, as the Barb horses are favored for spare mounts by forces of Tariq as Goldstein theorized the Muslim invaders prized the Arabian breed so much, so they keep them most of the times, while they used the Barbs for trivial routines. The Barbs brought by them crossbreeded through ages with native Spanish horses.^[109] Barbs crossbreedings with Spanish stock under 300 years of Umayyad patronage has developed the Andalusian horse (and the Lusitano) breeds.^[110] Regarding the Portuguese claimed Lusitano breed, Juan Valera-Lemait noted the evidence of the exchange of blood between the Iberian breeds with Barb breeds were mutually beneficial, to the point that modern Barb more resembling the Iberian breed stock as well as the criollo horses of South America. while the introduction to America continent were related to the Muslim invasion medieval era, when Spain and Portugal were in constant war with the Berber invaders where horse and horsemanship had become finely attuned to the war exercises. Thus resulted the Conquistadors introduced and dispersed the breed throughout America.^[111]

Meanwhile, the genetics strength of the desert-bred Arabian horse, Arabian bloodlines have played a part in the development of nearly every modern light horse breed, including the Orlov Trotter,^[112] Morgan,^[113] American Saddlebred,^[114] American Quarter Horse,^[113] and Warmblood breeds such as the Trakehner.^[115] Arabian bloodlines have also influenced the development of the Welsh Pony,^[113] the Australian Stock Horse,^[113] Percheron draft horse,^[116] Appaloosa,^[117] and the Colorado Ranger Horse.^[118] In modern era, peoples cross Arabians with other breeds to add refinement, endurance, agility and beauty. In the US, Half-Arabians have their own registry within the Arabian Horse Association, which includes a special section for Anglo-Arabians (Arabian-Thoroughbred crosses).^[119] Some crosses originally registered only as Half-Arabians became popular enough to have their own breed registry, including the National Show Horse (an Arabian-Saddlebred cross),^[120] the Quarab (Arabian-Quarter Horse),^[121] the Pintabian^[122] the Welara (Arabian-Welsh Pony),^[123] and the Morab (Arabian-Morgan).^[124]

Another possible strain of horse that came to Europe with these Islamic cavalry invaders was the Turkoman horse,^[17] which possibly brough from Muslim conquest of Transoxiana and Persia.

Mamluk horse[]

Aside from practical military use, The breeding of pure Arabian breed were practiced by the military regime of Mamluk as way to gain social prestige in a middle of Arabian aristocratic society in Egypt, Sham, and Hejaz.^[82] Since the Mamluks were hailed from slave backgrounds, which consisted from Turkic peoples from the Eurasian Steppe,^{[125] [126][127]} and also from Circassians,^[126][128] Abkhazians,^{[129][130][131]} Georgians,^{[132][133][134][135]} Armenians,^[136] Albanians,^[137] Greeks,^[132] South Slavs^{[132][137][138]} (see Saqaliba) or Egyptians.^[139] The Mamluk though that the genealogical purity of their steeds were symbols of martial horsery culture of Arabians, religious purity, and military might.^[82]

Arabian horses also spread to the rest of the world via the Ottoman Empire, which rose in 1299. this Turkish empire obtained many Arabian horses through trade, diplomacy and war.^[5] The Ottomans encouraged formation of private stud farms in order to ensure a supply of cavalry horses.^[140]

Delhi Sultanate & Mughal empire[]

During the Umayyad campaigns in India, Muhammad ibn Qasim has brought cavalry of 6000 riding fine Arabian Horses.^[141] Since then, exports of horses via the maritime routes through the Persian Gulf, supplied mainly from Arabian peninsula and southern Iran has flowed through India.^[142] Since then, the Muslim regimes in India has undergoing extensive cavalry army building which revolved around the Arabian horse, such as Delhi Sultanate,^[107] and also the Mughal empire,^[143] as it is attested further by the period of Mughal of the 16th to 17th century, when horses were imported from the countries of Arabia, Iran, Turkey and Central Asia to India.^[144]

the Bhimthadi horse, or Deccani horse breed, gets its name from the vast Deccan Plateau in India. A major trade in Arabian horse breeds in the ports of Deccan began after the Bahamani Sultanate revolted against the Delhi Sultanate.^[145] The Bhimthadi breed was developed in Pune district in 17th and 18th centuries during the Maratha rule by crossing Arabian and Turkic breeds with local ponies.^[146][147]

Rise of Saudi[]

Arabian horses were classified based on their geographical provenance by their bedouin masters, such as Hejaz, Najd, Yemen, Bilād al‑Shām, Jezirah, or Iraq breed as example.^[82]

The Najd breed were somehow found their prominence both in warfare and cultural heritage in accordance with the rise of their master's regime, House of Saud and Wahhabism religious movement which spanned from the time of Wahhabi War on early 18th AD century, towards the aftermath of World War I.^[148] During Unification of Saudi Arabia war, high ranked Arabian peninsula desert communities such as Sharif of Mecca and the first Saudi Emirate put emphasis on their Arabian horse breedings, in well documented records from Carl Raswan and other desert researchers.^[148]

In modern era, royal family from Kingdom of Saud also known for their love for breeding horses and spent expenses for such effort.^[149]

Islamic ruling regarding war horses breeds[]

The profound tradition of Arabian horse breeding exaltation by early caliphate soldiers even became a basis for scholars of later era. Muslim jurists who codified Islamic law from the mid‑eighth century to strongly connect the horse with Jihad, as They especially stated that it should receive shares in the plunder: two parts of the fourth‑fifths share by Maliki, Shafiʽi school and Hanbali, while one for Abū Ḥanīfa.^[82] Accordingl, there are belief in Islam about the Arabian horses which found in Hadith that an Arabian breeds were praying for their owners to God two times a day.^[150]

Shafi'i jurist, Al-Mawardi, to establish the ruling of regular military share that the owner of noble purebreed Arabian(al‑khayl al‑ʿitāq) should be rewarded a share of booty three times of regular infantry soldiers, while owners of inferior mixed breeds received only twice infantry soldiers' share.^[3] Al-Mawardi seems based his ruling from hadith tradition from companion of the prophet named Abd Allah ibn Amr ibn al-As.^[82] While Ahmad ibn Hanbal ruled that "a mixed‑breed birdhawn (al‑birdhawn al‑hajīn) should be given the half share of the noble Arabian [horse] (al‑ʿarabī al‑ʿatīq). Henceforth, the rider (fāris) of the birdhawn should be given two shares whereas the rider of the noble Arabian horse should be given three shares"^[82] The related tradition of cavalry spoils privilege from Miqdad ibn Aswad^{[Notes 9]} and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam privileged share of five times that of normal soldiers by the ruling that Zubayr were owner of warhorse and also a relative of Muhammad were discussed by modern Salafi scholars as valid rules based on those hadiths.^{[Notes 10]}

Military, religious & political Legacy[]

During the Second Fitna, Najdat controlled Yamama in central Arabia, whereas Azariqa controlled Fars and Kirman in southern Persia.

Chroniclers recorded Kharijites as among fiercest and most zealous element within caliphate cavalry hailed from the Bedouin tribes of Arabs^[6] and Berbers,^{[153][Notes 11]} that will later revolt against their own caliphate.^[106] 8th century chronicler, Al-Jahiz noted Kharijites horsemen ferocity, who spent parts of their early career in Kufa as Rashidun garrison troop during the Muslim conquest of Persia.^[155]

The Kharijites were feared for their powerful cavalry charge with their lances which could break any defensive line, and almost never lose when pitted against equal number of opponents.^[6] This claim also supported by Akbar Shah Khan Najibabadi, who has given measure that a valiant Kharijite army sometimes could even defeat an opponent whose number were ten times or twenty times bigger than them.^[156] The testament Kharijites prowess are when the Kharijites quietists faction^{[Notes 12]} led by Abu Bilal Mirdas,^{[Notes 13]} who hailed from Tamim tribe decimated the 2,000 Umayyad force from Basra under Aslam ibn Zur'a al-Kilabi, with only forty mens in the encounter at the village of Asak near Ramhurmuz.^{[159][160][161]}

Meanwhile, Al-Jahiz also pointed out Kharijites steeds' speed could not intercepted by most rival cavalrymen in medieval era, save for the Turkish Mamluks,^[6] As Tabari recorded the stamina and nimbleness of Kharijites, where they will even retreat long time, as it takes early morning until time for Salah prayer for Abu al-Rawwagh, caliphate commander, to pursue them without breaking down.^[162]

Furthermore, legendary perseverance of the Kharijites in history were captured several times in the medieval chronicles, such as when Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam, member of Kharijite assassin who murdered Ali, did not flinch in pain or shown fear when his arms, legs, and eyes mutilated by Ali sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, before being executed. Ibn Muljam only shown fear when it is his tongue are about cut, due to his reason that if his tongue were cut, he cannot pray with his mouth again before executed.^[163][164] or when the Ibadi Rustamid warriors under Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Rahman are said never flinched against hails of enemy arrows, and even laughed when arrows stuck on their bodies.

Hurqus & Iraqi Kharijites[]

According Al-Shahrastani, an 11th AD century Shafiite scholar, the proto Kharijite group were called al-Muhakkima al-Ula.^[165] they were rooted from the Muslim warriors existed back in the times of prophet Muhammad.^[12] the al-Muhakkima al-Ula group were led by a figure named Dhu al-Khuwaishirah at-Tamimi,^[166] more famously known as  [ar], a Tamim tribe chieftain, veteran of the Battle of Hunayn and first generation Kharijites who protested the war spoils distribution.^[12][13] Hurqus were recorded being prophesied by a Hadith from Muhammad that he will revolt against Caliphate later.^[167]

At first, Hosts of Hurqus were among those who participated in the Muslim conquest of Persia led by Arfajah, Rashidun general who commands the army and navy in Iraq. During Conquest of Khuzestan, Hurqus defeated Hormuzan in 638 at Ahvaz (known as Hormizd-Ardashir in modern era) to subdue the city.^[168] However, later during the reign of Uthman, Hurqus was one of the ringleaders from Basra that conspired to assassinate Uthman.^[167] They are the soldiers of Ali during the battle of Siffin, who later rebelled towards the Caliphate of Ali and planned their rebellion in the village of Haruri.^[165] Despite being suppressed by Ali, remnants of Hurqus group of Muhakkima al-Ula or the Haruriyya proto-Kharijites has survived and would later influenced the splinter sects of Azariqa, Sufriyyah, Ibadiyyah, Yazidiyyah, Maimuniyyah, Ajaridah, al-Baihasiyyah, and the Najdat radical sects.^{[165][Notes 14]} These violent warrior sects will plagued the entire history of Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad, and Abbasid with endemic rebellions.

The host of Hurqus also contained another troublesome Kharijite embryos that also came to Iraq under Arfajah were the ones that hail from Bajila tribe,^[14] Notable seditionist warriors from this tribe were Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, who participated in the early conquests of Persia under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas.^[15] and later joined the hosts of Hurqus against caliphate of Ali in the battle of Nahrawan. Ibn Wahb survived this battle, and escaped to form the Ibāḍiyya Wahb sect, that even survived up to 20th century modern era in Oman.^[106]

Scholars evaluations about Kharijites[]

According to Shafiite scholar Abdul Qahir ibn Thahir Bin Muhammad Al Baghdadi in his book of encyclopedia of astray sect within Islam, al-Farq bain al-Firaq, The Azariqa were the most strongest faction with biggest followers.^[165] They are the first target by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr to be suppressed, who sent Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra for the operation.^[165] Despite their military strength and fanatical zealotry, the Azariq followers were superficially prone to disunity and Divide and rule strategy launched by Muhallab, who acknowledged of the shallowness of the Azariqa Jihad concept when faced by Muhallab own jurists, engaging some religious debate towards some of their key members of the Kharijites regarding the flaw of their Islamic practice and Jihad, thus enticed most of them to indirectly serving Muhallab by striking their own allies.^[165] This fatal flaw are, according to Akbar Shah Najibabadi, the reason why Muhallab never lose his battle against the fearsome Kharijites, while seven of Muhallab sons also shown exemplarly success during anti-Kharijite operations.^[156]

Dr. Adam Ali M.A.PhD. postulated that Al-Jahiz assessment of the military quality of Kharijites are synonymous with the regular Arab cavalry in general term of speed and charging maneuver.^[6] In fact, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Ḥabīb, a jurist and historian in the 9th century described the Berber Kharijites as a mirror match for the Caliphate army, as they are resembling the Arabic caliphate martial tradition, except for the loyalty to authority.^[153] Ibn Nujaym al-Hanafi, Hanafi scholar, outlined his evaluation about Kharijites: "... kharijites are a folk possessing strength and zealotry, who revolt against the government due to a self-styled interpretation. They believe that government is upon falsehood, disbelief or disobedience that necessitates it being fought against, and they declare lawful the blood and wealth of the Muslims...”.^[106]

Scholars of later such as Al-Dhahabi, Abu Dawud al-Sijistani Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen, and Majd ad-Dīn Ibn Athir era has observed the historical influence of Dhu al-Khuwaishirah Hurqus at-Tamimi and Abu Bilal Mirdas at-Tamimi on their commentary notes as a warning against the danger of Khawarij, even when they are just criticizing the superiors in public and not openly rebelled.^[158][157]

See also[]

• Khalid ibn Walid
• Rashidun Caliphate army
• Early Caliphate navy
• Companion cavalry (elite cavalry of Alexander's Macedonian army)
• Muslim conquest of Syria

Notes[]

References[]

Bibliography[]

External links[]

• Ahmad Salamah, Muhammad (1993). الخيل والفروسية [horse and equestrian] (Arabic poetry -- History and criticism, Horsemanship -- Arab countries -- Islamic Empire, Horsemen and horsewomen -- Arab countries -- Islamic Empire, Horses -- Arab countries -- Islamic Empire, Horses -- Names -- Dictionaries -- Arabic, Horses in literature, Arabian Peninsula -- Social life and customs, Arabian horse, Arabic literature -- History and criticism, Chivalry, Chivalry in literature, Horsemanship -- Arab countries, Horses -- Arab countries, Horses -- Dictionaries, Horses -- Dictionaries -- Names -- Arabic) (in Arabic). دار الفكر العربى للطباعة والنشر (Dar al Fikr al 'Arb Printing and Publishing ). ISBN 9789771020608. Retrieved 21 January 2022. the position and history of the horse and horsemanship in pre-Islamic and Islamic Arab culture, largely as portrayed through Arabic poetry and other literature.