Two Chinas

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources:  –  ·  ·  · scholar · JSTOR (February 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Two Chinas
Territory controlled by the People's Republic of China (PRC) (red) and the Republic of China (ROC) (blue). The size of minor islands has been exaggerated in this map for ease of identification. The Diaoyu (Diaoyutai) Islands are claimed by both the ROC and PRC as part of Taiwan, but are administered by Japan.
Traditional Chinese	兩個中國
Simplified Chinese	两个中国
showTranscriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin liǎng gè Zhōngguó (in PRC) liǎng ge Zhōngguó (in ROC) Bopomofo ㄌㄧㄤˇ ㄍㄜ` ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛ´ (in PRC) ㄌㄧㄤˇ ㄍㄜ˙ ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛ´ (in ROC) Wade–Giles liang3 ko4 chung1-kuo2 (in PRC) liang3 ko chung1-kuo2 (in ROC) Yale Romanization lyǎng gè Jūnggwó (in PRC) lyǎng ge Jūnggwó (in ROC)

Politics of China
show Leadership Leadership generations Succession of power Hu–Wen Administration (2002–2012) Xi–Li Administration (2012–2017) Xi Core Administration (since 2017) 4th Leadership Core: Xi Jinping 19th Party Politburo: Xi Jinping 13th State Council: Li Keqiang Current state leaders Current provincial leaders National leaders Orders of precedence Paramount leader: Xi Jinping Communist Party leader: Xi Jinping Head of state: Xi Jinping Head of government: Li Keqiang Congress Chairman: Li Zhanshu Conference Chairman: Wang Yang Commander-in-chief: Xi Jinping Politburo Standing Committee members Related systems Democratic centralism Collective leadership Organization Department Elections Civil service
show Communist Party History Principal leaders Constitution Admission Oath (Article 6) Organization National Party Congress (19th) Central Committee (19th) General Secretary (list) Xi Jinping Central Politburo (19th) Standing Committee (list) Central Secretariat Top-ranked secretary: Wang Huning Central Military Commission Chairman: Xi Jinping Vice-Chairman: Xu Qiliang, Zhang Youxia National Security Commission Chairman: Xi Jinping Vice-Chairman: Li Keqiang, Li Zhanshu Office Chief: Ding Xuexiang Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Directors: Li Keqiang, Wang Huning, Han Zheng Secretary-General: Wang Huning Financial & Economic Affairs Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Director: Li Keqiang Office Chief: Liu He General Office Director: Ding Xuexiang  [zh] Chief: Ding Xuexiang Central Security Bureau Central Guard Unit Office of the Central Secrecy Commission Organization Department Head: Chen Xi Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (19th) (19th) Secretary: Zhao Leji Provincial committee Standing committee Secretary Deputy secretaries
show United Front Political Consultative Conference National Committee Chairman: Wang Yang Vice-Chairpersons Top-ranked: Zhang Qingli Secretary-General: Xia Baolong Political parties: CPC (ruling) United Front Work Department Head: You Quan RCCK CDL CDNCA CAPD CPWDP CZGP JS TDSGL Historical parties: KMT CDSP CYP Federation of Industry and Commerce People's organizations
show Ideology Marxism–Leninism Mao Zedong Thought Socialism with Chinese characteristics Deng Xiaoping Theory Primary stage of socialism Four Cardinal Principles Three Represents Scientific Outlook on Development Harmonious Socialist Society Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era Chinese Dream Four Comprehensives
show Constitution Law Constitution Previous constitutions 1954 1975 1978 "People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1) Democratic centralism (Article 3) Constitutional oath of office (Article 27) Protection of human rights (Article 33) Freedom of religion (Article 36) Chinese legal system Civil law tradition Socialist law tradition Laws Legislation Law List of statutes General Principles of the Civil Law (to 2020) Civil Code (From 2021) Marriage Law Labour law Labour Law Labour Contract Law Property law Property Law Intellectual property law Patent law Administrative law Administrative Procedure Law Criminal law Capital punishment Capital offences Death sentence with reprieve
show Legislative National People's Congress (13th) Members Plenary sessions Voting results Presidium Standing Committee Chairman: Li Zhanshu Vice-Chairpersons Top-ranked: Wang Chen Secretary-General:  [zh] Special committees Ethnic Affairs Constitution and Law Supervisory and Judicial Affairs Financial and Economic Affairs Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Foreign Affairs Overseas Chinese Affairs Environment Protection and Resources Conservation Agriculture and Rural Affairs Social Development Affairs Legislation Law Elections
show Presidency President (list): Xi Jinping Presidential spouse: Peng Liyuan  [zh] Chief: Ding Xuexiang Vice-President: Wang Qishan
show Executive State Council (Central People's Government) Li Keqiang Cabinet II Premier (list): Li Keqiang Vice-Premiers (list) Han Zheng Sun Chunlan Hu Chunhua Liu He State Councilors Wei Fenghe Wang Yong Wang Yi Xiao Jie Zhao Kezhi Secretary-General: Xiao Jie Cabinet-level departments National Development & Reform Commission Central bank National Audit Office General Office Secretary-General Deputy Secretary-Generals State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission most Central Enterprises
show Military Central Military Commission (CMC) Chairman (supreme commander): Xi Jinping Vice-Chairman: Xu Qiliang Zhang Youxia Members: Wei Fenghe Li Zuocheng Miao Hua Zhang Shengmin Departments: General Office Director: Zhong Shaojun Joint Staff Dept. Chief: Li Zuocheng Political Work Dept. Director: Miao Hua Logistic Support Dept. Equipment Development Dept. Training and Administration Dept. National Defense Mobilization Dept. Discipline Inspection Commission Secretary: Zhang Shengmin Strategic Planning Office Reform & Organizational Structure Office Int'l Military Cooperation Office Audit Office Offices Administration Agency National armed forces: People's Liberation Army Theater commands People's Armed Police China Coast Guard Militia State Council National Defense Mobilization Commission Chairman: Li Keqiang Ministry of National Defense Minister: Wei Fenghe Ministry of Veterans Affairs State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense Military history Armed conflicts Military modernization Military reform since 2015 CMC Leading Group for Military Reform Leader: Xi Jinping
show Supervision Corruption in China Anti-corruption campaign since 2012 CPC Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (19th) Secretary: Zhao Leji Deputy Secretaries Yang Xiaodu Zhang Shengmin Liu Jinguo Yang Xiaochao Li Shulei Xu Lingyi Secretary-General: Yang Xiaochao National Supervisory Commission Director: Yang Xiaodu Central Leading Group for Inspection Work Leader: Zhao Leji Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission Secretary: Zhang Shengmin Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong) Commission Against Corruption (Macau)
show Judiciary Law enforcement CPC Central Politics and Law Commission Secretary: Guo Shengkun Supreme People's Court President: Zhou Qiang People's Courts Judicial Police Supreme People's Procuratorate Prosecutor General: Zhang Jun People's Procuratorates Judicial Police State Council Ministry of Public Security Minister: Zhao Kezhi (State Councilor) Public Security Organs People's Police State Immigration Administration Local public security bureaus Ministry of State Security Minister: Chen Wenqing State Security Organs People's Police Ministry of Justice Minister: Fu Zhenghua Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police  [zh] Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR Urban Management (chengguan) Judiciary of Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal Department of Justice Prosecutions Division Law enforcement in Hong Kong Security Bureau Regular Disciplined Services Hong Kong Police Force Judiciary of Macau Court of Final Appeal Secretariat for Security Macau Security Force  [zh] Public Security Police  [zh]
show Propaganda Central Leading Group for Propaganda and Ideology Leader: Wang Huning Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization Director: Wang Huning Deputy Director: Huang Kunming Central Propaganda Department Head: Huang Kunming National Press and Publication Administration China Film Administration [zh] State Council Information Office China Daily Ministry of Culture and Tourism National Radio and Television Administration China Media Group China Central Television China Global Television Network China National Radio China Radio International Xinhua News Agency Reference News China News Service People's Daily Global Times China Today Censorship in China Radio jamming Overseas censorship of Chinese issues Media of China Internal media Publishing industry in China Internet in China Internet censorship Great Firewall Great Cannon Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy director: Li Keqiang Cyberspace Administration of China Director: Xu Lin
show Hong Kong Macau Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Leader: Han Zheng HK & Macau Affairs Office Director: Zhang Xiaoming Liaison Office in Hong Kong Liaison Office in Macau One country, two systems Special administrative regions Hong Kong Basic Law Chief Executive: Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor Hong Kong SAR Government Politics of Hong Kong Independence movement Mainland & HK CEPA Macao Basic Law Chief Executive: Chui Sai On Macau SAR Government Politics of Macau Mainland & Macau CEPA
show Cross-Strait relations Cross-Strait relations Chinese Civil War One-China policy Political status of Taiwan Republic of China on Taiwan Taiwan Area "Taiwan Province", PRC Taiwan independence movement Anti-Secession Law Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement Chinese unification Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs Leader: Xi Jinping Deputy Leader: Wang Yang Taiwan Affairs Office Director: Zhang Zhijun Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits
show Foreign relations Central Foreign Affairs Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Director: Li Keqiang Secretary-General: Yang Jiechi Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister: Wang Yi (State Councilor) Spokespersons Diplomatic missions Diplomatic missions of China / in China Foreign aid from China / to China International Development Cooperation Agency Ministry of Commerce Exim Bank of China China Development Bank Belt and Road Initiative Silk Road Fund Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank BRICS New Development Bank Ministry of National Defense International Military Cooperation Office NPC Foreign Affairs Committee CPC International Liaison Department State Council Information Office State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs Overseas Chinese Affairs Office Chinese nationality law Chinese passports (Hong Kong; Macau) Visa requirements for Chinese citizens (Hong Kong, Macau) Visa policy of China (Hong Kong; Macau) National Immigration Administration Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence Panda diplomacy Beijing Consensus Sino-British Joint Declaration One country, two systems China and the United Nations China and the World Trade Organization Shanghai Cooperation Organisation China–Africa relations China–Caribbean relations China–European Union relations China–Pacific relations China–Russia relations China–United States relations
show Related topics Administrative divisions Hukou system Family planning Ethnic minorities Communism
China portal Other countries
v t

Politics of the Republic of China
show Government Constitution Additional Articles of the Constitution Freedom of religion (Article 13) Law Taxation
show Presidency President of the Republic of China Tsai Ing-wen (DPP) Vice President of the Republic of China Lai Ching-te (DPP) Office of the President National Security Council
show Executive Premier of the Republic of China Su Tseng-chang (DPP) Vice Premier of the Republic of China Shen Jong-chin (DPP) Executive Yuan The Cabinet
show Legislature Legislative Yuan Speaker Yu Shyi-kun (DPP) Deputy Speaker Tsai Chi-chang (DPP) 10th Legislative Yuan National Assembly (defunct) Control Yuan (chamber defunct)
show Judiciary Judicial Yuan President and Chief Justice Hsu Tzong-li Supreme Court High Courts District Courts
show Other branches Examination Yuan President Huang Jong-tsun Control Yuan President Chen Chu Local government Mayors and Magistrates
show Elections Central Election Commission Presidential elections Legislative elections Local elections Referendums
show Political parties Nationally represented Democratic Progressive Party Kuomintang Taiwan People's Party New Power Party Taiwan Statebuilding Party Others People First Party Taiwan Solidarity Union New Party Non-Partisan Solidarity Union Green Party Taiwan
show Related topics Foreign relations Political status of Taiwan One-China policy Taiwan independence movement Chinese Taipei Chinese unification Taiwanese nationalism Tangwai movement Taiwanization Cross-Strait relations Special state-to-state relations One Country on Each Side 1992 Consensus Taiwan consensus Third Taiwan Strait Crisis Ma–Xi meeting
Taiwan portal Other countries
v t

The term "Two Chinas" refers to the current geopolitical situation of two political entities with the name "China" (simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國; pinyin: Zhōngguó):^[1][2]

Official name	People's Republic of China	Republic of China
Common name	China	Taiwan (present) China (historical)
Date of establishment	1 October 1949	1 January 1912
Effective jurisdiction	Mainland China (1949–1997) Mainland China and Hong Kong (1997–1999) Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau (1999–present)	Mainland China (1912–1919, 1921–1945) Mainland China and Outer Mongolia (1919–1921) Mainland China and Taiwan (1945–1949) Taiwan and associated islands (1949–present)
Representation of "China" in the United Nations	1971–present	1945–1971

Background[]

In 1912, the Xuantong Emperor abdicated as a result of the Xinhai Revolution, and the Republic of China was established in Nanjing by revolutionaries under Sun Yat-sen. At the same time, the Beiyang government, led by Yuan Shikai, a former Qing dynasty general, existed in Beijing, whose legitimacy was challenged by the Nationalist government under the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party).

From 1912 to 1949, China was scarred by warlords, the Japanese invasion and the Chinese Civil War. Throughout this turbulent period, various short-lived governments existed in China. These include Yuan Shikai's Beiyang government (1912–1928), the Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937) established by the Communist Party of China,^[3] the puppet states of Manchukuo (1932–1945) and Mengjiang (1939–1945), the Fujian People's Government (1933–1934), and Wang Jingwei's Japanese-sponsored puppet government (1940–1945).

As the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, the Chinese communist People's Republic of China (PRC), led by Chairman Mao Zedong, took control of Mainland China. The Republic of China, led by President Chiang Kai-Shek, retreated the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan.

Though fighting continued for the next several years, by the time of the Korean War the lines of control were sharply drawn: the Communist-led People's Republic of China government in Beijing controlled most of mainland China, while the Kuomintang-led Republic of China government, now in Taipei, controlled the island of Taiwan, some surrounding islands, and a number of islands off the coast of Fujian. This stalemate was enforced with the assistance of the United States government that began deterring an invasion of Taiwan after the start of the Korean War.

For many years, both governments contended to be the sole legitimate government of China. With the fighting largely over, the major battleground became diplomatic. Before the 1970s, the Republic of China was still recognized by many countries and the United Nations as the sole legitimate government of "China", which claimed sovereignty over both mainland China and Taiwan. The Republic of China had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council until 1971, when they were expelled from the UN and China's representation was replaced by the People's Republic of China (PRC) via UN General Assembly Resolution 2758. Before the 1970s, few foreign governments recognised the People's Republic of China. The first governments to recognise it as the government of "China" were Soviet bloc countries, members of the non-aligned movement, and the United Kingdom (1950). The catalyst to change came in 1971, when the United Nations General Assembly expelled representatives of Chiang Kai-shek by refusing to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other governments, including the United States. The Republic of China continued to compete with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to be recognised as the legitimate government of China.

Since the 1990s, however, a rising movement for formal recognition of Taiwanese independence has made the political status of Taiwan the dominant issue, replacing the debate about the legitimate government of China. A view in Taiwan is that the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China are both sovereign, thus forming "two Chinas", or "one China, one Taiwan". Former Republic of China President Chen Shui-bian adamantly supported this status quo, and accordingly largely abandoned the campaign for the Republic of China to be recognised as the sole legitimate government of China. Under President Chen, the ROC government was campaigning for the Republic of China to join the United Nations as representative of its effective territory—Taiwan and nearby islands—only. Chen's successor, President Ma Ying-jeou, ceased that push.^{[citation needed]}

Current situation[]

The map shows the One-China policy in practice.

  People's Republic of China (PRC)

  Nations which recognize the PRC as the legitimate government of China.

  Nations which recognize the PRC as the legitimate government of China, but with informal relations with Taiwan.

  Republic of China (ROC)

  Nations which recognize the ROC as the legitimate government of China.

  States with no reported position at present.

Officially, both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) claim de jure sovereignty over all of China whilst denying the legitimacy of the other.^[4][5][6] The position of the PRC and the Pan-Blue Coalition of the ROC remains that there is only one sovereign entity of China, and that each of them represents the legitimate government of all of China—including both mainland China and Taiwan—and the other is illegitimate. The position of the Pan-Green Coalition of the ROC is that Taiwan is an independent sovereign state named "Republic of China", and Taiwan is not part of "China". In the PRC, affairs related to the ROC are handled through the Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council; in the ROC, affairs related to the PRC are the responsibilities of the Mainland Affairs Council.

People's Republic of China[]

The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) opposes treating the Republic of China (ROC) as a legitimate state and portrays Taiwan as a rogue province of the PRC.^[7] The People's Republic of China government has consistently opposed "two Chinas", instead espousing that all of "China" is under one single, indivisible sovereignty under its "One China Principle", explicitly including Taiwan. Under this principle, while the PRC has no de facto control over territory administered by the ROC, the PRC nevertheless claims that the territories controlled by both the PRC and ROC are part of the same, indivisible sovereign entity "China".^[8][9] Furthermore, under the succession of states theory, the PRC claims that it has succeeded the ROC as the government of "China", and thus the current ROC regime based in Taiwan is illegitimate and has been superseded.^{[citation needed]}

PRC government policy mandates that any country that wishes to establish a diplomatic relationship with the PRC must first discontinue any formal relationship with the ROC. According to The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, "non-recognition of the Taiwanese government is a prerequisite for conducting formal diplomatic relations with the PRC—in effect forcing other governments to choose between Beijing and Taipei."^[10][11] In order to compete for other countries' recognition, each government has given money to certain small countries. Several small African and Caribbean countries have established and discontinued diplomatic relationships with both sides several times in exchange for huge financial support from each side.^[12] The PRC also uses its international influence to prohibit the ROC from entering international events such as the Olympic Games under its official name. Instead, the ROC was forced to adopt the name Chinese Taipei to enter such events since the 1980s.^[13] Furthermore, on press releases and other media, the PRC never refers to the ROC as such, instead referring to the territory of Taiwan as "China's Taiwan Province", and to the ROC government as "the Taiwan authority".^{[citation needed]}

Republic of China[]

Until the constitutional reforms of 1991, the Republic of China (ROC) actively asserted its claim of sovereignty over all of China. ROC authorities clarified the constitutional reforms by stating they do not "dispute the fact that the PRC controls mainland China."^[14]

The emergence of free speech and democracy in Taiwan and the resulting ability of the Taiwan independence movement to gain ground has further complicated matters. While the PRC finds the "Two Chinas" unpalatable, it considers an independent Taiwanese state to be an even worse alternative. Handling of the issue has varied by administration now that the democratic Republic of China has experienced several changes of leadership of the Executive Yuan.

In 1999, then President Lee Teng-hui defined the relationship as "Special state-to-state relations".

President Chen Shui-bian declared in 2002 that "with Taiwan and China on each side of the Taiwan Strait, each side is a country". In 2003 he explained that "Taiwan is not a province of one country nor is it a state of another".^[15][16] The Chen administration took steps to use Taiwan internationally in the name of preventing confusion over the "two Chinas". For example, some Taiwanese have had difficulty traveling with "REPUBLIC OF CHINA" passports as officials mistook them for citizens of the People's Republic of China, so "TAIWAN" has been added to the cover of Republic of China passports.^[17]

In September 2008 President Ma Ying-jeou from the Kuomintang stated that the relations between the ROC and the PRC are neither between two Chinas nor two states, saying instead that it is a "special relationship". Further, he stated that the sovereignty issues between the two cannot be resolved at present, but he quoted the 1992 Consensus, currently accepted by both sides, as a temporary measure until a solution becomes available.^[18] The spokesman for the ROC Presidential Office Wang Yu-chi (Chinese: 王郁琦) later clarified the President's statement and said that the relations are between two regions of one country, based on the ROC Constitutional position, the Statute Governing the Relations Between the Peoples of the Taiwan Area and Mainland Area and the 1992 Consensus.^[19]

However, since President Tsai Ing-wen of the Democratic Progressive Party came to office in 2016, she refuses to recognize the 1992 consensus reached between the PRC and Kuomintang that both sides belong to "one China". Beijing responded by stopping communications with Taipei.^[20]

Similar historical circumstances[]

In Chinese history, periods of prolonged political division and dynastic transition saw the existence of more than one "China" at the same time.^[21]

China was politically divided during several sustained periods historically, with two or more states simultaneously existing on territories associated with "China" and claiming to represent "China". Examples include the Spring and Autumn, Warring States, Three Kingdoms, Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern and Southern dynasties, and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others. Just as the PRC and the ROC formally claim exclusive mandate over the entirety of China,^[4][5][6] historical Chinese dynasties that existed during periods of sustained political disunity often claimed exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy at the expense of others.

During dynastic transitions, it was rare for one dynasty to end abruptly and transition smoothly to a new one, resulting in the existence of more than one entity claiming to be "China".^[22] For instance, during the Ming–Qing transition, the Ming dynasty existed alongside the Qing dynasty from 1636 to 1644. The predecessor of the Qing dynasty, the Later Jin dynasty, was established in 1616 and ruled over northeastern China whilst the Ming dynasty ruled over China proper.^[23] Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644, remnants of the Ming imperial family, whose regime is known in historiography as the Southern Ming dynasty, continued to rule parts of southern China until 1662.^[24] Multiple ephemeral regimes also existed during this period, including the Shun and Xi dynasties on mainland China, and the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan.

See also[]

• One-China policy
• Foreign relations of Taiwan
• Desinicization
• Chinese unification
• Division of Korea
• Exclusive mandate
• Two Germanies
• Two Koreas
• Two Sicilies
• Two Spains

References[]