Caliphate of Ali

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Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was the caliph between 656 and 661 CE, a trying period in Muslim history, coinciding with the first Muslim civil war. He reigned over the Rashidun empire which extended from Central Asia in the east to North Africa in the west. He became known as both a just and fair ruler. He died in 661.

Background[]

Opposition to Uthman[]

Ali frequently accused the third caliph Uthman (r. 644–656) of deviating from the Quran and Sunna,^[1][2][3] and he was joined in this criticism by most of the senior companions.^[2][4] Uthman was also widely accused of nepotism^[5] and corruption,^[6] and Ali is known to have protested Uthman's nepotism^[7] and his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.^[8][3] Ali also often protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,^[9] against the caliph's wrath.^[10]

Some supporters of Ali were part of the pious opposition to Uthman's conduct,^[11][12] joined in their efforts by Muhammad's companions Talha^[13] and Zubayr, and his widow Aisha.^[14][11] These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph, though there is no evidence that he communicated or coordinated with them.^[15] Among them were al-Ashtar and the other religiously-learned^[16] qurra (lit. 'Quran readers').^[3] Ali is said to have rejected the requests to lead the rebels,^[1][17] though he might have sympathized with their grievances about injustice.^[18][17] It is likely that some companions supported the protests with the hope of either deposing Uthman^[11] or changing his policies,^[19] thus underestimating the severity of the opposition to Uthman.^[19]

Assassination of Uthman[]

As their grievances mounted, discontented groups from provinces began arriving in Medina in 35/656.^[20] Before their first siege of Uthman's house,^[21] the Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to send a delegation to negotiate with Uthman, unlike Talha and Ammar who are said to have encouraged the Egyptians to advance on the town.^[22] Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to avoid violence, which was heeded.^[23] During the second siege, Ali urged Uthman to publicly repent, which he did, asking Muslims for advice.^[24] Marwan reportedly convinced him that this show of weakness would only embolden the opposition and Uthman soon retracted his statement.^[25]

Ali also acted as a mediator between Uthman and the provincial dissidents^[20][26][18] more than once^[27] to address their economical^[28] and political^[20] grievances. In particular, he acted as a guarantor for Uthman's promises to the opposition but possibly declined to intervene further when the Egyptians intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment upon their return to Egypt.^[29][9] Uthman was assassinated shortly afterward in 656 by the Egyptians^[30] in a raid on his residence in Medina.^{[31][32][33][34]}

Was Ali involved?[]

Ali played no role in this attack,^[1][35] and his son Hasan was injured while standing guard at Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.^{[36][37][11][36]} He also convinced the rebels not to prevent the delivery of water to Uthman's residence during the siege.^[29][9]

Beyond this, historians disagree about Ali's measures to protect the third caliph.^[19] Jafri and Madelung highlight Ali's multiple attempts for reconciliation during the two sieges,^[11][38] and Hinds believes that Ali could not have done anything more for Uthman, supporting whom would have meant supporting the infamous Umayyads.^[9] Donner^[19] and Gleave^[2] suggest that Ali was the immediate beneficiary of Uthman's death, though this is challenged by Madelung, who observes that Aisha would have not actively undermined Uthman's regime if Ali had been the prime mover of the rebellion and its future beneficiary.^[39] He and others note the deep-seated enmity of Aisha for Ali,^{[39][40][41][42]} which resurfaced immediately after his accession.^[39]

On the other extreme, Veccia Vaglieri believes that Ali did not defend the caliph,^[43] and Caetani goes further, labeling Ali as the chief culprit in Uthman's murder, even though the evidence seems to suggest otherwise.^[44]

Election[]

Ali may have been the first male to convert to Islam, though some reports claim this honor for Zayd ibn Haritha or Abu Bakr.^[45]

Support[]

After Uthman's assassination, his tribesmen (the Umayyads) fled Medina,^[1][46] and the rebels and their Medinan allies controlled the city. While Talha enjoyed some support among the Egyptian rebels,^[46] Ali was preferred by the most of the Ansar (early Medinan Muslims) and the Iraqi rebels, who had earlier heeded Ali's opposition to the use of violence.^[46][19][47] Some also add the (prominent) Muhajirun (early Meccan Muslims) to the above list of Ali's supporters.^{[20][17][11][19][26]}

Legitimacy[]

The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who was initially reluctant to accept it,^[17][20][2] possibly wary of implicating himself in Uthman's regicide by becoming the next caliph.^[11] Ali eventually accepted the role, and some authors suggest that he did so to prevent further chaos,^[47][26] compelled by popular pressure.^[48][49][2] The election of Ali faced little opposition,^[35][47][43] and some suggest that Ali was elected by a near-consensus, commenting that Ali was the only caliph in whose election the Muslim community had a voice.^[50][51] Nevertheless, Ali had limited support among the Quraysh, some of whom aspired to the title of caliph.^[40][35]

First acts[]

At the time of Uthman's assassination, the key governorships were in the hands of his tribesmen.^[50][52] Ali was advised to confirm these governors,^[53][20] some of whom were unpopular,^[40] to consolidate his caliphate. He rejected this and replaced nearly all those who had served Uthman,^[40] saying that the likes of those men should not be appointed to any office.^[53] In this and other decisions, Ali was driven by his sense of religious mission.^[54]

Ruling style[]

Domains of Rashidun empire under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to Ali caliphate.

  Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate

  Vassal states of Rashidun Caliphate

  Region under the control of Muawiyah I during civil war 656–661

  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during civil war 658–661

Ali was a close relative of Muhammad with a widely reported knowledge of Islam's roots. During his caliphate, he evidently laid claim to a divine religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunnah, in order to meet the needs of a rapidly-changing caliphate.^[55] This distinguished Ali from his predecessors who saw themselves merely as the administrators of the divine law.^[56]

According to Madelung, the caliphate of Ali was characterized by his honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his equal treatment of all of his supporters, and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.^[57] Veccia Vaglieri notes that Ali fought against those whom he perceived as erring Muslims as a matter of duty, in order to uphold Islam. In victory, Ali would prevent the enslavement of women and children, against the common practice of the day. He showed his grief, wept for the dead, and even prayed over his enemies.^[58] Ali barred his troops from commencing hostilities in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Nahrawan.^[59] Prior to the Battle of Siffin, when his forces gained the upper hand, Ali refused to retaliate after Syrians cut off their access to drinking water.^[60]

Jones holds that the reign of Ali is remembered as a model for socio-political and religious righteousness that defied worldly corruption and social injustice.^[61] Early in his caliphate, Ali moved to dismiss most of Uthman's governors, whom he considered corrupt, and reversed Uthman's entitlements for the ruling elite.^[62] These actions, which earned Ali powerful enemies, have been criticized as politically naive. On the other hand, Tabatabai suggests that these actions reinforce that the rule of Ali was based more on righteousness than political opportunism, following the precedent of Muhammad's defiance of the powerful Quraysh in early Islam.^[63] Ali's instructions to the governor of Egypt have been viewed as a model of just Islamic governance, "where justice and mercy is shown to human beings irrespective of class, creed and color, where poverty is neither a stigma or disqualification and where justice is not tarred with nepotism, favoritism, provincialism or religious fanaticism."^[64] Ali also opposed a centralized control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution of the taxes and booty amongst Muslims, following the precedent of Muhammad.^[65] This practice, according to Poonawala, might be an indication of Ali's policy to give equal value to all Muslims who served Islam, a policy which later garnered him considerable support among the traditional tribal leaders.^[66] According to Shaban, Ali's policies earned him the strong support of the underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, who were subordinated after Muhammad by the Quraysh leadership, and the Qurra or Quranic reciters who sought pious Islamic leadership.^[67] One account holds that Ali rejected the request by his brother, Aqil, for public funds.^[68]

According to Heck, Ali also forbade Muslim fighters from looting and instead distributed the taxes as salaries among the warriors, in equal proportions. This might have been the first subject of the dispute between Ali and the rebel group that later constituted the Kharijites.^[69] Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. In particular, Ali instructed his top general, Malik al-Ashtar, to pay more attention to land development than short-term taxation.^[70]

First Fitna[]

The first Muslim civil war, known also as the First Fitna, took place after the assassination of Uthman and continued throughout the reign of Ali, in which he fought the rebel forces in three major battles.^[71]

Battle of the Camel[]

Muhammad's widow, A'isha bint Abi Bakr, and two of Muhammad's prominent companions, namely, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, opposed Ali's succession and gathered in Mecca, where they called for vengeance for Uthman's death and election of a new caliph through a council, presumably either Talha or Zubayr.^[72] The leading roles of A'isha and Talha against Uthman are well-cited.^[73] The rebels raised an army and invaded Basra, inflicting heavy casualties and taking it from Ali's governor.^[74] They engaged Ali's forces outside of Basra in the Battle of the Camel, where the latter emerged victorious.^[75] Ali moved his capital to Kufa afterwards.^[76]

Battle of Siffin[]

Early in his caliphate, Ali dismissed Muawiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, whom Ali considered corrupt.^[77] Muawiya refused to step down and instead informed Ali that he would recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for the governorship of Syria and Egypt for life.^[78] Ali rejected this proposal as a matter of principle.^[79] Muawiya, who was a relative of Uthman, then declared war on Ali with the objectives of vengeance for Uthman's death, deposing Ali, and establishing a Syrian council to appoint the next caliph, presumably Muawiya.^[80] For his part, Ali argued that Muawiya was welcome to seek justice for Uthman under the rule of Ali and also challenged Muawiya to name any Syrian who would qualify for a council.^[81] Ali then called a council of Islamic ruling elite which urged him to fight Muawiya.^[82] The two armies met in 657 at Siffin, west of the Euphrates.^[83] After weeks of failed negotiations, the main battle began on 26 July.^[84] As the balance moved in favor of Ali, Muawiya ordered some of the Syrian soldiers to raise copies of the Quran on their lances and call for arbitration by the Quran.^[85]

Faced with strong peace sentiments in his army and threats of mutiny, Ali was compelled to accept the arbitration proposal, though he apparently saw through Muawiya's ruse.^[86] The majority in Ali's army now pressed for the reportedly neutral Abu Musa al-Ashari as their representative, despite Ali's objections about Abu Musa's political naivety and lukewarm support.^[87] Nevertheless, the arbitration agreement, dated 2 August 657, stipulated that Abu Musa would represent Ali's army while Muawiya's top general, Amr ibn al-As, would represent Muawiya.^[88] After months of planning, the two arbitrators met and reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Muawiya had the right to seek revenge.^[89] This has been viewed as a political verdict, rather than a judicial one, and a blunder by Abu Musa.^[90] After the conclusion of the arbitration, Syrians pledged their allegiance to Muawiya as the next caliph, whereas Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began to organize a new expedition to Syria.^[91]

Battle of Nahrawan[]

With the news of their murders and violence against civilians, Ali had to postpone the campaign for Syria to subdue Kharijites, a faction that had separated from Ali when he agreed to arbitration at Siffin, a move considered by the group as against the Quran.^[92] Most of them had earlier forced Ali to accept the arbitration, but now exclaimed that the right to judgment belonged to God alone.^[93] These rebels gathered in Nahrawan, on the east bank of the Tigris, and, in view of their exodus, came to be known as the Kharijites, i.e., those who secede.^[94] While Ali largely succeeded in disbanding the group, the remaining Kharijites attacked and were vanquished by the vastly superior army of Ali.^[95]

Final years of Ali's caliphate[]

Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali's support weakened and he was compelled to abandon his second Syria campaign and return to Kufa.^[96] Egypt fell in 658 to Muawiya, who killed Ali's governor and installed Amr ibn al-As.^[97] Muawiya also began to dispatch military detachments to terrorize the civilian population, killing those who did not recognize Muawiya as caliph and looting their properties.^[98] Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.^[99] Ali was also faced with armed uprisings by the remnants of the Kharijites, as well as opposition in eastern provinces.^[100] However, as the extent of the rampage by Muawiya's forces became known to the public, it appears that Ali finally found sufficient support for a renewed offensive against Muawiya, set to commence in late winter 661.^[101] These plans were abandoned after Ali's assassination.^[102]

Assassination[]

Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of Ali's sword as carved on the Gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr.

In 661, on the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, he was struck over the head with a poison-coated sword by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. Ali died two days later from his wound. The sources seem to be unanimous that Ali forbade his family from excessive punishments for Ibn Muljam and from shedding the blood of others. In the meantime, Ibn Muljam was to be given good meals and a good bed. After Ali's death, his eldest son, Hasan, observed the lex talionis and Ibn Muljam was executed. Ali's grave was kept secret out of the fear that it might be desecrated by his enemies. His burial site was identified decades later, around which the town of Najaf grew as a major site of pilgrimage for Muslims, especially Shias.^[103]

Footnotes[]

References[]

Books[]

• Abbas, Hassan (2021). The Prophet's Heir: The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300252057.
• Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1986). Administrative Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-0710300591.
• Aslan, Reza (2011). No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. Random House. ISBN 9780812982442.
• Bodley, R.V.C. (1946). The Messenger; the Life of Mohammed. Doubleday & Company, Inc.
• Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674064140.
• Durant, Will (1950). The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 191.
• Glassé, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 9780759101890.
• Hazleton, Lesley (2009). After the prophet: The epic story of the Shia-Sunni split in Islam. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 9780385532099.
• Jafri, S.H.M (1979). Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam. London: Longman.
• Kelsay, Jhon (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25302-4.
• Kennedy, Hugh (2015). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century. Routledge.
• Lambton, Ann K. S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-293-7.
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
• Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
• Mavani, Hamid (2013). Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini. Routledge. ISBN 9780415624404.
• Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780853982005.
• Morgan, Kenneth W. (1987). Islam, the Straight Path: Islam Interpreted by Muslims. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. ISBN 978-8120804036.
• Redha, Mohammad; Mohammad Agha (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 2-7451-2532-X.
• Watt, Montgomery William (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198810780.
• Wellhausen, Julius (1901). Die religiös-politischen Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam [The Religious-Political Opposition Factions in Ancient Islam] (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. OCLC 453206240.
• Veccia Vaglieri, Laura (1970). "THE PATRIARCHAL AND UMAYYAD CALIPHATES". In Holt, Peter M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–103.
• Shaban, M.A. (1970). Islamic History: Volume 1, AD 600-750 (AH 132): A New Interpretation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521291316.
• Daftary, Farhad (2014). A History of Shi'i Islam. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781780768410.
• McHugo, John (2018). A Concise History of Sunnis and Shi'is. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 9781626165885.
• Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2015). "Imam Ali". In Daftary, Farhad; Sajoo, Amyn; Jiwa, Shainool (eds.). The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9780857727633.
• Tabatabai, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1975). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Sayyid Hossein Nasr. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8.

Encyclopedias[]

• Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). "Shi'ism". The new encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. pp. 422–8. ISBN 9780759101890.
• Anthony, Sean W. (2013). "'Ali b. Abi Talib (ca. 599-661)". In Bowering, Gerhard (ed.). The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 30–2. ISBN 9780691134840.

• Heck, Paul L. (2004). "Politics and the Quran". .
• Poonawala, Ismail (1985). "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011.
• Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021a). "Ali b. Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021b). "Al-Djamal". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021c). "Al-Ashari, Abu Musa". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021d). "Ibn Muldjam". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Afsaruddin, Asma (2021). "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Gleave, Robert M. (2021). "Ali b. Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Jones, Linda G. (2009). "Ali ibn Abi Talib". In Campo, Juan Eduardo (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 9781438126968.
• Campo, Juan Eduardo, ed. (2009). "Fitna". Encyclopedia Of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. 241. ISBN 9781438126968.
• Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013b). "Arbitration". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. 43. ISBN 9780691134840.
• Hinds, M. (2021). "Muawiya I". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Lecker, M. (2021). "Siffin". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Morony, M. (2021). "Al-Nahrawan". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
• Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195125597.
• Levi Della Vida, G. (1978). "Khāridjites". In van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IV: Iran–Kha. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1074–1077. OCLC 758278456.
• Anthony, Sean W. (2013a). "'Ali b. Abi Talib (ca. 599-661)". In Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 30–2.

Journals[]

• Hinds, Martin (1972). "The Murder of the Caliph'Uthman". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 3.4: 450–69.

Further reading[]

• Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0-940368-43-9.
• Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. 1570622116.
• , George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7.(in Arabic)
• Ibn Qutaybah. Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa.(In Arabic)
• Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (1997). The Book of the Major Classes (scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan). Ta-Ha Publishers, London.
• Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 0950698660.
• Lakhani, M. Ali.; Reza Shah-Kazemi; Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. 1933316268.
• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 969-8016-22-8.