March on Rome
| March on Rome | |||||||||
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  Benito Mussolini and his Blackshirts during the March | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Luigi Facta Antonio Salandra Paolino Taddei Marcello Soleri Giovanni Giolitti |
 Benito Mussolini Emilio De Bono Italo Balbo C. M. De Vecchi Michele Bianchi | ||||||||
| Political support | |||||||||
Liberals Socialists Populars Communists |
 Fascists Nationalists | ||||||||
The March on Rome (Italian: Marcia su Roma) was an organized mass demonstration in October 1922 which resulted in Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (PNF) ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy. In late October 1922, Fascist Party leaders planned an insurrection, to take place on 28 October. When fascist demonstrators and Blackshirt paramilitaries entered Rome, Prime Minister Luigi Facta wished to declare a state of siege, but this was overruled by King Victor Emmanuel III. On the following day, 29 October 1922, the King appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict.[1][2]
Background[]
In March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first Italian Fasces of Combat (FIC) at the beginning of the so-called Red Biennium, a two-year long social conflict between the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the liberal and conservative ruling class. Mussolini suffered a defeat in the election of November 1919.[3]
Since 1919, Fascists militias, known as squadristi or "Blackshirts" due to their uniforms, began to attack socialist politicians and militants. In August 1920, the militia was used to break the general strike which started at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan, while in November 1920, after the assassination of Giulio Giordani (a right-wing municipal councillor in Bologna), the Blackshirts were active in violent suppression of the socialist movement, which included a strong anarcho-syndicalist component, especially in the Po Valley.
In the 1921 general election the Fascists ran within the National Blocs of Giovanni Giolitti, an anti-socialist coalition of liberals, conservatives and fascists. The Fascists won 35 seats and Mussolini was elected in the Parliament for the first time.
After a few weeks, Mussolini withdrew his support for Giolitti and his Italian Liberal Party (PLI) and attempted to work out a temporary truce with the Socialists by signing the so-called "Pact of Pacification" in the summer 1921. The Pact led to many protests by the radical members of the Fascist movement, led by local leaders like Roberto Farinacci, who were known as Ras. In July 1921, Giolitti attempted to dissolve the Blackshirts, but he failed; while the Pact with the Socialists was nullified during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, during which Mussolini promoted a nationalist program and renamed his movement National Fascist Party (PNF), which enrolled 320,000 members by late 1921.[4]
In August, an anti-fascist general strike was organized throughout the country, but it failed and was repressed by the Fascists. A few days before the march, Mussolini consulted with the U.S. Ambassador Richard Washburn Child about whether the U.S. government would object to Fascist participation in a future Italian government and Child gave him American support. When Mussolini learned that Prime Minister Luigi Facta had given Gabriele D'Annunzio the mission to organize a large demonstration on 4 November 1922 to celebrate the national victory during the war, he decided to immediately implement the March.[citation needed]
March[]
On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared in front of 60,000 militants at a Fascist rally in Naples: "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy."[5] On the following day, the Quadrumvirs, Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, were appointed by Mussolini at the head the march, while he went to Milan. He did not participate in the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers, and he comfortably went to Rome the next day.[6] Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted with the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organizers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.
On 26 October, the former Prime Minister Antonio Salandra warned the then Prime Minister, Luigi Facta, that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would only become a minister of his government. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Luigi Facta (who had resigned but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the King about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the King would agree.[7] However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order.[8] On 29 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right wing.
The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while Fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment.[citation needed] Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 29 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power, in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the seizure of power which Fascism later celebrated but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasized free market and laissez faire economics.[9] This proved overly optimistic, as Mussolini's corporatist view stressed total state power over businesses as much as over individuals, via governing industry bodies ("corporations") controlled by the Fascist party, a model in which businesses retained the responsibilities of property, but few if any of the freedoms. By 1934 Mussolini claimed to have nationalized "three-fourths of the Italian economy, industrial and agricultural", more than any other nation except the Soviet Union.[10]
Mussolini pretended to be willing to take a subalternate ministry in a Giolitti or Salandra cabinet, but then demanded the presidency of the Council.[11] Fearing a conflict with the fascists, the ruling class thus handed power to Mussolini, who went on to install the dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti – who had finished writing The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination – executed by Amerigo Dumini, accused of being the leader of the "Italian Ceka", though there is no evidence for such an organization existing.
Other participants[]
- Giacomo Acerbo
- Roberto Farinacci
- Giovanni Giuriati
- Serafino Mazzolini
- Ettore Muti
- Aurelio Padovani
- Alessandro Pavolini
- Carlo Scorza
- Achille Starace
See also[]
- Beer Hall Putsch (similar action by the Nazi Party inspired by the March on Rome)
- Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–26)
- Peasant March
- Red Shirts (Mexico)
- Red Shirts (Thailand), Thailand
- March of the Iron Will
- 1984 Anti-Sikh riots, Punjab, India
- Visakhi
- Khalistan movement
- Assassination of Indira Gandhi
- Punjab insurgency
- 2021 storming of the United States Capitol
References[]
- Carsten, Francis Ludwig (1982). The Rise of Fascism. University of California Press.
- Cassells, Alan. Fascist Italy. Arlington Heights, IL: H. Davidson, 1985.
- Gallo, Max. Mussolini's Italy: Twenty Years of the Fascist Era. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
- Leeds, Christpher. Italy under Mussolini. Hove, East Sussex: Wayland, 1988 (1972).
- Chiapello, Duccio. Marcia e contromarcia su Roma. Marcello Soleri e la resa dello Stato liberale. Rome: Aracne, 2012.
- Gentile, Emilio. E fu subito regime. Il fascismo italiano e la marcia su Roma. Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2012.
Notes[]
- ^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2008). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
- ^ "March on Rome | Italian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
- ^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 297
- ^ Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
- ^ Carsten (1982), p.62
- ^ Morgan, Philip (1995). Italian Fascism 1919-1945. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-333-53779-3.
- ^ Chiapello (2012), p.123
- ^ Carsten (1982), p.64
- ^ Carsten (1982), p.76
- ^ T Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford University Press (2013) p. 59; Mussolini’s speech to the Chamber of Deputies on May 26, 1934
- ^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
External links[]
- Mussolini's March on Rome Original reports from The Times
- The March on Rome entry at Tiscali reference.
- Map of Europe and Italian Fascist seizure of power at omniatlas
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