Pashalik of Yanina

Pashalik of Yanina Pashallëku i Janinës Πασαλίκι των Ιωαννίνων
1787–1822
Flag
Status	Autonomous province, de facto independent[1][2][3][4]
Capital	Yanina 39°40′N 20°51′E / 39.667°N 20.850°E / 39.667; 20.850Coordinates: 39°40′N 20°51′E / 39.667°N 20.850°E / 39.667; 20.850
Official languages	Greek (Demotic) Albanian (Tosk) Turkish (Ottoman)
Other languages	Aromanian
Ethnic groups	Greeks Albanians Aromanians Turks
Religion	Eastern Orthodoxy Sunni Islam Sufism
Government	Pashalik
Pasha
• 1787–1822	Ali Pasha
Historical era	Early modern period
• Established	1787
• Disestablished	1822
Preceded by Succeeded by Ioannina Eyalet Pashalik of Berat Ioannina Eyalet First Hellenic Republic

The Pashalik of Yanina, Ioanina, or Janina (1787–1822) was an autonomous and de facto independent^[1][2][3][4] Pashalik within the Ottoman Empire covering large areas of Albania, Greece, and North Macedonia. The Pashalik acquired a high degree of autonomy under the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha, though this was never officially recognized by the Ottoman Empire. Its core was the Ioannina Eyalet, centred on the city of Ioannina in Epirus. At its peak, Ali Pasha and his sons ruled over Southern and Central Albania; the majority of mainland Greece: Epirus, Thessaly, West Macedonia, western Central Macedonia, Continental Greece (excluding Attica), and the Peloponnese; and parts of south-western North Macedonia around Ohrid and Bitola.^[5][6][7]

History[]

Ali Pasha by Louis Dupré

A Firman issued by Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha in 1810 and written in vernacular Greek. Ali used Greek for all his courtly dealings.^[8]

Ali Pasha first came to power as when he was appointed mutasarrıf of Ioanninna at the end of 1784 or beginning of 1785, but was soon dismissed, returning to the position only at the end of 1787 or the start of 1788.^[9] Ali gained control of Delvina and became ruler of the Sanjak of Delvina in 1785, but did not have control full control of the Sanjak, with the regions of Himara (1797) and Gjirokastër (1811) being taken later. Additionally, the regions of Margariti and Paramythia, which fell within Sanjak of Delvina, and Fanari, within the Sanjak of Ioannina (conquered later by Ali), were ruled by Cham Albanian landlords, such as Hasan Çapari, who remained in conflict with Ali Pasha throughout much of the Pashalik's existence. ^[10]

In 1787 Ali Pasha took control of the Sanjak of Trikala (Thessaly), which was later officially rewarded to him for his support for the sultan's war against Austria. Shortly afterwards, in 1787 or 1788, he seized control of the town of Ioannina and declared himself ruler of the sanjak, which remained his power base for the next 34 years.^[11] This marked the beginning of the Pashalik of Yanina, with Ali self-appointing himself Pasha of Yanina and delegating the title of Pasha of Trikala to his son, Veli.^[12] At this point, the Sanjaks of Delvina, Trikala, and Yanina composed the Pashalik.^[13]

Like other semi-independent regional leaders that emerged in that time, such as Osman Pazvantoğlu, he took advantage of a weak Ottoman government to expand his territory until he gained de facto control of most of Albania and mainland Greece, either directly or through his sons.^[14]

Taking advantage of another Russo-Turkish War starting in 1787, Ali annexed the regions of Konitsa (in the Sanjak of Ioannina), and Libohovë, Përmet and Tepelenë (from the Sanjak of Avlona) to the Pashalik during the years 1789 to 1791. During this period, he also purchased Arta, giving the Pashalik access to the shores of the Ionian Sea via the Gulf of Arta. In 1789 the Aromanian town of Moscopole, within the Sanjak of Elbasan, was sacked and destroyed.^[15][16] Also in 1789, Ali first invaded the semi-independent Souliote Confederacy to the west of the Sanjak of Ioannina, following their mobilisation of 2,200 Souliotes in March 1789 against the Pashalik and the Muslims of Rumelia.^[17] A second campaign against the Souliotes took place in 1790. During these two campaigns, the Pashalik captured some Parasouli settlements, but ultimately was repulsed from the core Souli region.^[18]

Starting in 1788, Ali had attempted to take control of the Sanjak of Karli-Eli, finally invading in October 1789. The Ottoman government reacted by granting the entire sanjak of Karli-Eli (minus the voevodalik of Missolonghi) as a personal hass to Mihrişah Valide Sultan, the mother of Sultan Selim III, which prevented Ali Pasha from annexing the territory.^[19]

Following the end of the Russo-Turkish War in 1792, Ali ceased his expansions in order to avoid repurcessions from Sultan Selim III. Additionally, his forces took part formally on the side of the Porte in a campaign against Shkodër in 1793.^[12] Despite the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War and the expansion of his territories, the Pashalik's defeat against the Souliotes resulted in Ali's obsession with capturing the Confederacy.^[18] He launched another campaign in July 1792, dispatching 8,000-10,000 Albanians of the Pashalik to take the territory, with the Souliotes raising 1,300 men, but were defeated again. A peace agreement was made, with prisoners being exchanged and Parasouli villages captured in the previous two years being returned to the Souliotes.^[20]

During the Yanina-Souli conflict, the Himariotes had supported the Souliotes. In revenge, Ali Pasha led a raid against the town of Himara in 1797, and more than 6,000 civilians were slaughtered.^[21]

In 1797, France conquered Venice and gained from it control of the Ionian Islands and several coastal possessions in Epirus (Parga, Preveza, Vonitsa, Butrinto, and Igoumenitsa), making them neighbours to the Pashalik. In order to gain further access to the Ionian Sea, Ali formed an alliance with Napoleon I of France that same year, who had established Francois Pouqueville as his general consul in Yanina.^[22] He received ammunition and military advisors from the French. However, shortly afterwards in 1798 the Ottoman Empire went to war with France following their invasion of Egypt. Ali Pasha responded by seizing the French coastal territories of Butrint and Igoumenitsa (added to the Sanjak of Delvina), Preveza (added to the Sanjak of Ioannina), and Vonitsa, with Parga remaining as the sole French possession in mainland Greece.^[23] The French garrison in Preveza was destroyed in the Battle of Nicopolis, which was followed by a massacre. Following the capture of Preveza, Ali secured the neutrality of the Souliotes (who were dependent on French-controlled Preveza and Parga for livestock and ammunition supplies) through bribing of their leaders, which also caused internal conflict among the Souliote clans.^[24] A combined Russian-Ottoman force captured the Ionian Islands during 1799–1780, resulting in the establishment of the Septinsular Republic.

By 1799, the Pashalik was engaged in rivalry with the Pashalik of Berat to the north, which, like the Pashalik of Yanina, was also largely independent. Additionally, within the Pashalik there were several semi-independent regions that posed a threat to Ali Pasha's rule: the region of Delvina, in the north of Sanjak of Delvina; Chameria, in the south of Sanjak of Delvina and spilling into the Sanjak of Ioannina; and the Souliote Confederacy, to the west of the Sanjak of Ioannina. The Russians quickly sought to weaken the Pashalik's influence in the region, showing support for the aforementioned regions. Ali Pasha responded that same year by temporarily subduing the beys of three of the regions (Berat, Delvina, and Chameria).^[25] He additionally annexed the neighbouring region Himara to the Sanjak of Delvina and established good relations with the Himariotes. He financed various public works and churches, and built a large church opposite of Porto Palermo Castle.

Following this, a campaign was launched against the Souliotes in Autumn 1799,^[25] but this presumably failed. Another campaign was mounted in June–July 1800, with the Pashalik raising 11,500 men. However, a direct assault on the Souliote Confederacy failed, resulting in Ali undertaking besieging the core Souli villages by separating the Souli and Parasouli territories. For two years, the Souliotes were able to resist the siege by smuggling supplies from Parga, Paramythia, and Margariti. The Souliotes requested aid from the Septinsular Republic, and Ali responded by threatening Parga.^[26] In April 1802, a French corvette in Parga supplied the Souliotes with food, weapons and ammunition, providing a pretext for a new campaign by Ali against the Souliotes.^[27] The Souliotes also received in aid in secret from the Septinsular Republic in 1803.

Following four years of conflict, in 1803 Ali Pasha raised Albanian forces from Epirus and Southern Albania for a final assault on the Souli Confederacy. At this point, the situation in Souli was dire due to a lack of supplies.^[28] The Souliote War of 1803 resulted in the conquest of the entire territory and its incorporation into the Pashalik, with expulsions and atrocities against the Souliotes following.^[25] Some Souliotes fled to Parga, but were forced to cross the sea into the Septinsular Republic in March 1804 after Ali threatened to attack the city.^[29][30] Earlier, in November 1803, a treaty was signed between the Pashalik of Yanina and the Septinsular Republic.^[31]

Anxious to expand its influence to the Greek mainland, Russia signed alliances with Himariot and Cham Albanian beys on 27 June 1804, who were rivals to Ali Pasha. Additionally, Russia mobilised Souliot refugees in the Septinsular Republic for an offensive against the Pashalik, but this was cut short when Ali Pasha learned of the Russian plans and an Ottoman naval squadron made an unexpected appearance off Corfu.^[32]

Because of Ali Pasha's aggressive expansions, a rift formed between the Pashalik and the Ottoman Empire. As a result, Ali sought to ally himself to foreign European powers. In 1806, Ali again entered into an alliance with Napoleon I after being promised Corfu and its straits, and again became enemies with Russia at the start of another Russo-Turkish War in 1806. However, these promises were not fulfilled and so relations between the Pashalik and France later ended.^[33] Also in 1806, Ali Pasha gained control of the Sanjak of Karli-Eli, following the death of Mihrişah the previous year.^[19]

In 1806, Ali sent forces under the command of his sons Veli Pasha and Muhtar Pasha to aid the Ottoman effort in defeating the First Serbian Uprising in the Sanjak of Smederevo. In 1813, the rebellion was crushed by the Ottomans army, mostly composed Bosnians, from the Pashalik of Bosnia, and Albanians, from the Pashaliks of Scutari and Yanina.

In 1807, following the entry of the Septinsular Republic (a nominally Ottoman vassal) into the war on the side of Russia, Ali sent forces under Veli Pasha to attack the Republic.^[34] Lefkada was assaulted in Spring 1807, with the backing of Napoleon, and Santa Maura besieged, but this was repelled by the defenders, reinforced by Souliote and Russian forces.^[35][35]

After the Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon granted the Czar his plan to dismantle the Ottoman Empire, and ceded the Ionian Islands and Parga to France, reestablishing French rule. As a result, Ali allied himself with the British. His machinations were permitted by the Ottoman government in Constantinople from a mixture of expediency – it was deemed better to have Ali as a semi-ally than as an enemy – and weakness, as the central government did not have enough strength to oust him at that time.^{[citation needed]}

At some point before 1809 Veli became Pasha of Morea, and at an unknown date Muhtar became Pasha of Inebahti, resulting in both regions being incorporated into the Pashalik.^[36]

As relations with France deteriorated, Ali Pasha sought the capture of Parga, the last settlement in Epirus not under his control. In response, the French twice made plans to invade the Pashalik. The first, chronicled by Theodoros Kolokotronis, involved using the Albanian Regiment, supported by French artillery and Cham Albanians recruited by , to invade Morea, which at the time was part of the Pashalik under the rule of Veli Pasha. In his place they would install a mixed Christian-Muslim government, while the French mediated with the Porte to secure its approval. According to Kolokotronis, the plan was to be carried out in 1809, but was thwarted by the British occupation of French-held Zakynthos, Cephalonia, Kythira, and Ithaca that same year.^{[37] [38]}

The second attempt involved a detachment of 25 men of the Albanian Regiment, under Lt. Colonel Androutsis, who were sent to aid a Himariot revolt against Ali Pasha's forces in October 1810. Their ship foundered near Porto Palermo, however, and when attacked by Ali's forces, they were captured and taken prisoner to Ioannina.^[39]

The poet George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron visited Ali's court in Yanina in 1809 and recorded the encounter in his work Childe Harold.^[11] He evidently had mixed feelings about the despot, noting the splendour of Ali's court and some Orthodox cultural revival that he had encouraged in Yanina, which Byron described as being "superior in wealth, refinement and learning" to any other Albanian town. In a letter to his mother, however, Byron deplored Ali's cruelty: "His Highness is a remorseless tyrant, guilty of the most horrible cruelties, very brave, so good a general that they call him the Mahometan Buonaparte ... but as barbarous as he is successful, roasting rebels, etc.."^[40]

In 1809, Ali Pasha invaded the Pashalik of Berat, ruled by fellow Albanian Pashalik, Ibrahim Pasha. After villages had been burnt, peasants robbed and hanged, and flocks carried off on both sides, peace was made. Muhtar Pasha was married to Ibrahim's daughter, and the territories of the Pashalik of Berat passed to him as her dowry. With Muhtar governor of the new terrotories, Central Albania and western Macedonia were incorporated into the Pashalik of Yanina.^[41] Muhtar Pasha was made governor of the new territories^[33][42]

Despite French opposition, Ali seized control of the Sanjak of Avlona in 1810. In 1811, the region of Delvina was reconquered, and the region of Gjirokastër annexed, resulting in the complete annexation of the Sanjak of Delvina. At this point, the Pashalik consisted of the entirety of Southern Albania, Epirus (excluding Parga), and Thessaly, with all major regional rivals having been defeated. These expansions strengthened the autonomy of the region, however a lack of foreign support meant that the Pashalik was still dependent on the Empire. The Pashalik was composed of an Albanian feudal class and army, but Ali's power was assured by the Greeks. The population of the Pashalik itself was primarily Greek and Albanian.^[33]

On 15 March 1812, Ali sent Greek troops under the command of Thanasis Vagias to destroy the Muslim Albanian village of Kardhiq, after his Muslim Albanian followers had refused to do so. This action was ordered in revenge for the rape of his mother and sister, which had occurred in Kardhiq. The village was destroyed and 730 of its inhabitants killed.^[43][44][45]

In 1812 the settlement of Agia, belonging to Parga, was captured by Daut Bey, nephew of Ali Pasha. He then massacred and enslaved the local population. A siege of Parga ensued but failed, with Daut being killed during the siege.^[46]

By 1815, the British had established full control of the French territories of the Ionian Islands and Parga, establishing the United States of the Ionian Islands. In 1819, the British sold the city of Parga to Ali Pasha (the subject of Francesco Hayez's later painting The Refugees of Parga), resulting in its annexation to the Sanjak of Delvina within the Pashalik. This decision was highly unpopular among the predominantly Greek and pro-Venetian population of Parga, who refused to become Muslim subjects and decided to abandon their homes. Along with the locals, Klepht and Souliote refugees in Parga fled to nearby Corfu.^{[47][48][49][50]} Ali Pasha brought local Cham Albanians to repopulate Parga.^[50]

Ali Pasha's grave.

In 1820, Ali ordered the assassination of Gaskho Bey, a political opponent in Constantinople.^[51] The reformist Sultan Mahmud II, who sought to restore the authority of the Sublime Porte, took this opportunity to move against Ali by ordering his deposition. Ali refused to resign his official posts and put up a formidable resistance to Ottoman troop movements, indirectly helping the Greek Independence as some 20,000 Turkish troops were fighting Ali's formidable army.^[7]

On 4 December 1820 Ali Pasha with his Albanian troops, and the Souliotes formed an anti-Ottoman coalition, in which the Souliotes contributed 3,000 soldiers. Ali Pasha gained the support of Souliotes mainly because he offered to allow the return of the Souliotes in their land and partially because of Ali's appeal based on shared Albanian origin.^[52] Initially the coalition was successful and managed to control most of the region, but when the Muslim Albanian troops of Ali Pasha were informed of the beginning of the Greek revolts in the Morea they abandoned it.^[53]

In January 1822, however, Ottoman agents assassinated Ali Pasha and sent his head to the Sultan.^[11] After his death, the Pashalik was dissolved and replaced with the Ioannina Eyalet, composed of the Sanjaks of Ioannina, Avlona, Delvina, and Preveza. At its peak, the Pashalik controlled the following regions: Elbasan, Ohrid, Monastir, Avlona, Delvina, Ioannina, Trikala, Inebahti, Eğriboz, and Karaferye (in Salonica).^[54] The coastal fortresses of Porto Palermo, Saranda, Butrint, Parga, Preveza, Plagia, and Nafpaktos were controlled by Ali Pasha.^[55]

Economy[]

The territories of the Pashalik of Yanina have been characterized by a long period of international trade, mainly with Italy, and in particular with Ancona, Venice, Livorno, and Padua. Ioannina's trade was based on exporting both valueadded and crude goods and importing western luxury items.^[56]

Ioannina's textile products had a wide trade distribution. Silk braid, blankets, scarves, gold and silver thread, and embroidered slippers and garments were among the main commercial products exported to Italy and sold throughout the Balkans.^[57]

Crude goods were also widely exported from Ali Pasha's territory. There was a developed wood industry in the area, which also provided the resin that had a wide local trade. For a long period lumber from northern Epirus and southern Albania was exported from Ioannina to Toulon and used by the French for shipbuilding. The British gained control of the Ionian Islands in 1809; after then they became the major commercial partner of the region lumber trade was continued with the English. Ioannina exported fruits like lemons, oranges, and hazelnuts produced in Arta, but also olive oil, corn, and Albanian tobacco, the latter being particularly in demand for snuff. Albanian horses were sold and exported throughout the Balkans.^[58]

Ioannina also operated as the hub for the distribution of many imports from different European regions, which were brought to the capital of the Pashalik on horseback from eastern Adriatic ports such as Preveza, Vlorë, and Durrës.^[58]

See also[]

• Albania under the Ottoman Empire
• Albanian Pashaliks
• Greece under the Ottoman Empire
• Pashalik of Berat
• Pashalik of Scutari

References[]

Citations[]

Bibliography[]

• Fleming, K. E. (2014). The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplomacy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha's Greece. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6497-3.
• Robert Elsie (24 December 2012). A Biographical Dictionary of Albanian History. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-431-3.
• Sakellariou, M. V. (1997), Epirus, 4000 years of Greek history and civilization, Ekdotike Athenon, p. 480, ISBN 978-960-213-371-2, p. 380