Roads in Romania

Romania's National Road Network

Road network in Romania by quality (since 2 January 2020)

Public roads in Romania are ranked according to importance and traffic as follows:

• motorways (autostradă – pl. autostrăzi) – colour: green; designation: A followed by one or two digits
• expressways (drum rapid or drum expres) – colour: red; designation: DX followed by one or two digits and an optional letter
• national road (drum național – pl. drumuri naționale) – colour: red; designation: DN followed by one or two digits and an optional letter
• county road (drum județean – pl. drumuri județene) – colour: blue; designation: DJ followed by three digits and an optional letter; unique numbers per county
• local road (drum comunal – pl. drumuri comunale) – colour: yellow; designated DC followed by a number and an optional letter; unique numbers per county

Some of the national roads are part of the European route scheme. European routes passing through Romania: E58; E60; E70; E85; E79; E81; E68; E87 (Class A); E574; E576; E581; E583; E671; E771.

As of December 31, 2019, public roads totaled 86,391 km (53,680 mi): 17,873 km (20.7%) national roads, 35,083 km (40.6%) county roads and 33,435 km (38.7%) local roads.^[1]

From the point of view of the type of cover, the structure of the public road network registers is: 38,166 km (44.2%) modernized roads (92.8% with asphalt pavements of heavy/medium type and 7.8% with concrete), 21,365 km (24.7%) with light asphalt road clothing, 17,831 km (20.6%) cobblestone roads and 9,021 km (10.5%) dirt roads.^[1] Of all cobblestone and dirt roads 73% are local roads.^[1]

Regarding the technical condition, 13,411 km (35.1%) of modernized roads and 9,217 km (43.1%) of roads with light road clothing have exceeded their "service life".^[1]

Motorways[]

Development of the overall length (at the end of):

Motorways are identified by A followed by a number. As of December 2020, Romania has 914.3 km of motorway in use, with another 233.5 km under construction.^[2] In recent years, a master plan for the national motorway network has been developed and many works have begun around the country,^[3] which will result in significant changes by 2015,^[4] and eventually by 2022.^[5]

There are few tolls for using roads in Romania. There is one at the Giurgeni – Vadu Oii Bridge over the river Danube on highway at Vadu Oii and one at the Cernavodă Bridge, on the A2 motorway, a 17 km long section between Fetești and Cernavodă which consists of two road/railway bridges. Nevertheless, every owner of a car that uses a motorway (A) or a national road (DN) in Romania must purchase a vignette (rovinietă) from any of the main petrol stations or at any post office throughout the country.^[6]

Trunk Motorway	Route	Planned (km) / Built (km)	Remarks
A 0	Beltway around Bucharest	100 / 0	South Ring Road Motorway (48 km) under construction as of 2020. North Ring Road Motorway (52 km) planned.[citation needed]
A 1	Bucharest – Pitești – Râmnicu Vâlcea – Sibiu – Deva – Timișoara – Arad – Nădlac → Hungary	580 / 443	Bucharest – Pitești (110 km), Sibiu – Coșevița (175 km), Margina – Nădlac (159 km) sections are operational; works are ongoing on another 43 km between Pitești and Sibiu; the remaining 94 km have yet to start construction.[7]
A 2	Bucharest – Fetești – Cernavodă – Constanța	203 / 203	Operational on the entire length; first fully completed Romanian motorway.
A 3	Bucharest – Ploiești – Brașov – Sighișoara – Târgu Mureș – Cluj-Napoca – Zalău – Oradea – Borș → Hungary	596 / 167	Bucharest – Ploiești (62.5 km), Râṣnov – Cristian (6.3 km), Câmpia Turzii – Nădășelu (61.5 km), Ungheni – Chețani (31.6 km) and Biharia – Borș (5.4 km) sectors are operational; Târgu Mureş – Ungheni (4.5 km), Nădășelu – Poarta Sălajului (42.3 km), Nușfalău – Suplacu de Barcău (13.5 km), Chiribiș – Biharia (28.5 km) sections are under construction.
A 4	Ovidiu – Agigea – Mangalia – Vama Veche → Bulgaria	~60 / 22	Constanța bypass complete, between Ovidiu and the Port of Constanța. Agigea – Vama Veche section planned.
A 5	Bucharest – Giurgiu → Bulgaria	~50 / 0	It will connect Bucharest to Bulgaria, as an alternative to the existing National Road 5.
A 6	Junction with A1 near Lugoj – Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Craiova – Calafat – Alexandria – Bucharest	n/a / 11	Operational between the junction with A1 and the Lugoj bypass.[8]
A 7	Junction with A3 near Ploiești – Bacău – Suceava – Siret → Ukraine	436 / 16	Feasibility studies are currently underway for six lots (Ploiești to Siret). Only the Bacău bypass (16 km) is operational.[9]
A 8	Iași – Târgu Frumos – Săbăoani – Târgu Neamț – Sovata – Târgu Mureș	319 / 0	It will connect Moldavia to A3 Transylvania Motorway. Feasibility studies conducted in 2009–2011; Feasibility studies revision and update contracted in 2015.[10]
A 9	Junction with A1 near Timișoara – Moravița → Serbia	92 / 0	It will connect Timișoara to the Serbian border.
A 10	Junction with A1 near Sebeș – Alba Iulia – Junction with A3 near Turda	70 / 46	Lots 1, 3 & 4 operational, lot 2 currently in construction.[11] Estimated completion: 2021-2022
A 11	Arad – Oradea	118 / 3	Only a few kilometres between A1 and DN7 near Arad is open right now. Rest is planned.
A 12	Pitești – Craiova	121 / 0	Being built as DX12 expressway
A 13	Junction with A1 near Sibiu – Făgăraș – Brașov – Junction with A7 near Bacău	128 / 0	Mentioned in the 2014 Masterplan;[12] feasibility study underway. The contract for the feasibility study and technical project for Brașov - Bacău was signed in May 2020.
A 14	Junction with A7 near Suceava – Vatra Dornei – Bistrița – Dej – Baia Mare – Satu Mare – Oar → Hungary	335 / 0	It will link Suceava to Satu Mare and the Hungarian border.

Expressways[]

Planned expressways according to CNADNR (Romanian National Company of Motorways and National Roads):^[12][13]

European routes[]

Total length of European routes in Romania at the end of 2019 is 6,176 km (3837.5 mi).^[1]

Class A[]

Map of European routes passing through Romania

• E 58 — (Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine) – Halmeu – Dej – Bistrița – Suceava – Botoșani – Târgu Frumos – Iași – Sculeni – (Republic of Moldova, Ukraine, Russia)
• E 60 — (France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary) – Borș – Oradea – Cluj-Napoca – Turda – Târgu Mureș – Brașov – Ploiești – Bucharest – Urziceni – Slobozia – Constanța – (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, China)^[14]
• E 68 — (Hungary) – Nădlac – Arad – Deva – Sebeș – Miercurea Sibiului – Sibiu – Brașov
• E 70 — (Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia) – Timișoara – Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Craiova – Alexandria – Bucharest – Giurgiu – (Bulgaria, Turkey, Georgia)
• E 79 — (Hungary) – Borș – Oradea – Beiuș – Deva – Petroșani – Târgu Jiu – Filiași – Craiova – Calafat – (Bulgaria, Greece)
• E 81 — (Ukraine) – Halmeu – Livada – Satu Mare – Zalău – Cluj-Napoca – Turda – Sebeș – Miercurea Sibiului – Sibiu – Pitești – Bucharest – Constanța
• E 85 — (Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine) – Siret – Suceava – Roman – Bacău – Buzău – Urziceni – Bucharest – Giurgiu – (Bulgaria, Greece)
• E 87 — (Ukraine) – Galați – Brăila – Tulcea – Constanța – Vama Veche – (Bulgaria, Turkey)

Class B[]

• E 574 — Bacău – Onești – Târgu Secuiesc – Brașov – Pitești – Craiova
• E 576 — Cluj-Napoca – Dej
• E 577 — Slobozia – Brăila – Galați – (Republic of Moldova, Ukraine)
• E 578 — Sărățel – Reghin – Toplița – Gheorgheni – Miercurea Ciuc – Sfântu Gheorghe – Chichiș
• E 581 — Mărășești – Tecuci – Bârlad – Huși – Albița – (Republic of Moldova, Ukraine)
• E 583 — Săbăoani – Iași – Sculeni – (Republic of Moldova, Ukraine)
• E 584 — (Ukraine, Republica Moldova) – Galați – Slobozia
• E 671 — Timișoara – Arad – Oradea – Satu Mare – Livada
• E 673 — Lugoj – Deva
• E 675 — Constanța – Agigea – Negru Vodă – (Bulgaria)
• E 771 — Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Porțile de Fier – (Serbia)

National roads[]

National road network

Total length (including European routes and Highways) of National Roads in 2019 is 17,873 km (11105.77 mi),^[1] an increase from 17,272 km (10,732 mi) in 2015.^[15] The majority of National Roads (DN) are single carriageway, with only 12.5% being dual carriageway.^[1] A major problem being that many National Roads (drumuri naționale) have no ring roads around cities and towns, disrupting the traffic flow (i.e. making traffic condition more difficult).

In 2019 16,088 km (9,996 mi) of National Roads are asphalt concrete roads of heavy/medium type, 880 km (546.8 mi) concrete roads and 720 km (447 mi) of light asphalt road "clothing".^[1] 54.7% of heavy/medium roads and 79.4% of light asphalt roads have exceeded their "service life" and are in need of some form of repair or replacement.^[1]

Seven one-digit national roads start off in Bucharest in a radial pattern.^[2]

Trunk roads[]

National Road	Route	Length (km)	European System
DN1	Bucharest – Ploiești – Brașov – Făgăraș – Sibiu – Alba Iulia – Turda – Cluj-Napoca – Oradea – Borș –> Hungary	642	E 60 (Bucharest – Brașov) E 68 (Brașov – Tălmaciu) E68/E81 (Tălmaciu – Sebeș) E 81 (Sebeș – Turda) E60/E81 (Turda – Cluj-Napoca) E 60 (Cluj-Napoca – Oradea)
	Cluj-Napoca – Apahida – Gherla – Dej – Baia Mare – Halmeu –> Ukraine	217	E 576 (Cluj-Napoca – Dej) E 58 (Dej – Baia Mare – Halmeu) E 81 (Livada – Halmeu)
	Cluj-Napoca – Zalău – Sărmășag – Carei –> Hungary	178	E 81 (Cluj-Napoca – Zalău – Supuru de Sus)
	Chichiș – Sfântu Gheorghe – Băile Tușnad – Miercurea-Ciuc – Toplița	164	E 578 (entire route)
	Brașov – Rupea – Sighișoara – Bălăușeri – Târgu Mureș	165	E 60 (entire route)
	Turda – Câmpia Turzii – Luduș – Târgu Mureș – Reghin – Toplița – Poiana Largului – Bicaz – Piatra Neamț – Bacău	369	E 60 (Turda – Târgu Mureș) E 578 (Reghin – Toplița)
	Dej – Beclean – Bistrița – Vatra Dornei – Câmpulung Moldovenesc – Gura Humorului – Suceava	252	E 58 (entire route)
	Baia Mare – Sighetu Marmației – Borșa – Cârlibaba – Iacobeni	220
	Sighetu Marmației – Câmpulung la Tisa – Negrești-Oaș – Satu Mare – Carei – Oradea	234	E 81 (Livada – Satu Mare) E 671 (Satu Mare – Oradea)
DN2	Bucharest – Urziceni – Buzău – Focșani – Bacău – Roman – Fălticeni – Suceava – Siret –> Ukraine	482	E 85 (entire route)
	Urziceni – Slobozia – țăndărei – Hârșova – Constanța	210	E 60 (entire route)
	Buzău – Făurei – Brăila – Galați –> Moldova	152	E 87 (Brăila – Giurgiulești)
	Râmnicu Sărat – Brăila – Măcin – Isaccea – Tulcea – Babadag – Constanța	286	E 87 (Brăila – Constanța)
	Tișița – Tecuci – Bârlad – Vaslui – Iași – Sculeni –> Moldova	220	E 58 (Iași – Sculeni) E 581 (Tișița – Crasna) E 583 (Iași – Sculeni)
	Crasna – Huși – Albița –> Moldova	49	E 581
DN28	Roman – Târgu Frumos – Iași – Albița	141	E 58 (Târgu Frumos – Iași) E 85 (Roman – Săbăoani) E 583 (Săbăoani – Iași)
	Târgu Frumos – Pașcani – Moțca	38
	Târgu Frumos – Hârlău – Botoșani	78	E 58 (entire route)
DN3	Bucharest – Fundulea – Lehliu Gară – Călărași – Ostrov – Basarabi – Constanța	260
DN4	Bucharest – Oltenița	72
DN5	Bucharest – Giurgiu –> Bulgaria	65	E 70 (entire route) E 85 (entire route)
DN6	Bucharest – Alexandria – Caracal – Craiova – Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Caransebeș – Lugoj – Timișoara – Sânnicolau Mare – Cenad –> Hungary	639	E 70 (Bucharest – Timișoara)
	Simeria – Hațeg – Petroșani – Târgu Jiu – Filiași	211	E 79 (entire route)
	Timișoara – Arad	46	E 671
DN7	Bucharest – Găești – Pitești – Râmnicu Vâlcea – Sibiu – Deva – Arad – Nădlac –> Hungary	597	E 81 (Bucharest – Tălmaciu) E58/E81/overlap with DN1 (Tălmaciu – Sebeș) E 68 (Sebeș – Nădlac)
	Deva – Brad – ștei – Beiuș – Oradea	181	E 79 (entire route)
	Arad – Chișineu Criș – Salonta – Oradea	113	E 671
DNCB	Bucharest ring road	82

Other national roads[]

National Road	Route	Length (km)	European road	Remarks
DN1A	Bucharest – Buftea – Ploiești – Vălenii de Munte – Săcele	185	E 60 (Ploiești) E 577 (Ploiești)
DN1B	Ploiești – Mizil – Buzău	67	E 577 (entire route)	Upgrading to four-lane road.
	Mizil – Urziceni	42
	Brașov – Poiana Brașov – Râșnov	22
	Huedin – Jibou	50	E 81 (Zimbor-Sânmihaiu Almașului, overlap with DN1F)
	– Jibou – Șimleu Silvaniei – Aleșd	132	E 81 (Badon–Zalǎu, overlap with DN1F)
	Ciolpani – Lake Snagov	5		Formerly DJ101M
	Cluj-Napoca –	16		Formerly DJ105S
	Uileacu de Criș –	22
	Huedin – – Albac	80		Formerly DJ108
	Șercaia – Hoghiz	24		Formerly DJ104
	–	3		Formerly DJ106B
DN10	Brașov – Întorsura Buzăului – Nehoiu – Buzău	146
	Brașov – Târgu Secuiesc – Onești – Bacău	179	E 574 (entire route)
	Onești – Adjud – Podu Turcului	91
	Târgu Secuiesc –	40
	Miercurea-Ciuc – Târgu Ocna – Comănești – Onești	116
	Târgu Ocna – Slănic-Moldova	22
	Gheorgheni – Lacu Roșu – Bicaz	57
	Târgu Mureș – Praid – Sovata – Miercurea-Ciuc	131
	Gheorgheni – Praid	51
	Vânǎtori – Cristuru Secuiesc –	31
	Sovata – Săcădat	8
	Feldioara – Sfântu Gheorghe – Covasna – Întorsura Buzăului	89
	Sighișoara – Dumbrăveni – Mediaș – Copșa Mică – Sibiu	90
	Târgu Mureș – Iernut – Târnăveni – Mediaș	42
	Alba Iulia – Blaj – Copșa Mică	56
	Târgu Mureș – Reghin – Bistrița-Năsăud	47	E 578 (entire route)
	Poiana Largului – Târgu Neamț – Cristești	62
	Piatra Neamț – Bălțătești – Târgu Neamț – Fălticeni	60
	Piatra Neamț – Girov – Roman – Vaslui	120
	Târgu Mureș – Satu Nou	45
	Săcăluşeşti – Agapia – Agapia Monastery	7
	Bălțătești – Valea Seacă – Văratec Monastery	4
	Cluj-Napoca – Apahida – Reghin	105	E 578 (Reghin, overlap with DN15A)
	Câmpulung Moldovenesc – Moldovița – Rădăuți – Siret	93
	Vatra Dornei – Poiana Largului	87
	Bistrița – Năsăud – Moisei	86
	Beclean – Năsăud – – Cârlibaba	98
	Borșa – Băile Borșa	1
	Baia Mare – Târgu Lăpuș –	56
	Satu Mare – Supuru de Jos	62	E 81 (entire route)
	Nușfalău – Marghita – Săcueni	54
	[ro] – Buzău – Ianca – Brăila – Șendreni	126	E 584 Brăila – Galați
	Buzău – Pogoanele – Slobozia	85
	Focșani – Tulnici – Târgu Secuiesc	119
	Fălticeni – Gura Humorului	88
	Bacău – Vaslui	85
	Bacău – Moinești – Comănești	55
	– Milișăuți – Rădăuți – Vicovu de Jos – Putna	45
	Milișăuți – Arbore – Solca	17
	Focșani – Odobești –	52
	Mărtinești – Dumbrăveni – Jitia	56
	Jitia –	11
DN21	Brăila – Însurăței – Slobozia – Călărași	132	E 584 (Brăila-Slobozia)
	Bărăganul – Țăndărei	23
	Hârșova – Nalbant – Tulcea	86
	Brăila – Galați	13
	Basarabi – Medgidia – Cernavodă	43
	Măcin – Horia – Baia	78
	Galați – Garvăn	16
	Horia –	13
	Tulcea	5
	Focșani – Brăila	89
	Focșani – Mărtinești – Ciorăști	34
	Măicănești – Ciorăști	34
	Bârlad – Murgeni – Berezeni – Huși	100
	Vânători – – Rădăuți Prut	142
	Bârlad – Tulucești – Bălăbănești – Cuca	85
	Tecuci – Șendreni	68
	–	8
	Murgeni – Măstăcani – Galați	95
	Iași bypass	14
	Suceava – Botoșani – Săveni – Manoleasa	99	E 58 (Suceava–Botoșani)
	Suceava – Vârfu Câmpului – Dorohoi – Darabani – Rădăuți Prut	100
	Botoșani – Dorohoi	32
	Cucorăni – Vârfu Câmpului – Siret	46
	Botoșani – Trușești – –> Moldova	48
	–> Moldova	4
	Lehliu Gară – Fetești	79
	Călărași – Fetești – Hârșova	98
	Constanța – Ovidiu	12
DN3D	Călărași	6
	Călărași – Oltenița	60
	DN31 – DN4 (Oltenița)	3
	Agigea – Negru Vodă –> Bulgaria	54	E 675 (entire route)
	Constanța – Mangalia – Vama Veche –> Bulgaria	54	E 60 (Constanța–Eforie) E 87 (entire route)	Four-lane road.
	Eforie –	3	E 60 (entire route)
	DN39 – Olimp	4
	DN39 – Neptun	2
	DN39 – Jupiter	2
	Constanța – Cumpăna	6		Formerly a portion of DN38
	Oltenița – Giurgiu	64
	DN41–DN4 (Oltenița)	1
	Adunații-Copăceni – Hotarele – Greaca	34
	Giurgiu – Ghimpați	39
	Giurgiu – Zimnicea	59
	Alexandria – Zimnicea	43
	Zimnicea – Turnu Măgurele	56
	Alexandria – Turnu Măgurele	54
	Caracal – Corabia – Turnu Măgurele	71
	Corabia – Bechet	44
	Craiova – Bechet	71
	Bechet – Calafat	95
	Craiova – Calafat –> Bulgaria	85	E 79 (entire route)
	Maglavit – Vânju Mare – Drobeta-Turnu Severin	79
	Hinova – Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station	31
	Salcia, Mehedinți – Devesel	60
	Orșova – Moldova Nouă – Oravița – Moravița	201
	Moldova Veche – Baziaș –> Serbia	26
	Iablanița – Anina – Oravița	97
	Caransebeș – Reșița – Anina	83
	Soceni – Lugoj	41
	Voiteg – Bocșa – Gătaia – Reșița	66
	Timișoara – Voiteg – Moravița –> Serbia	64	E 70 (entire route)
	Timișoara – Jimbolia –> Serbia	48
	Cărpiniș – Cruceni – Deta	75
	Jimbolia – Sânnicolau Mare	41
	Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station –> Serbia	1	E 771 (entire route)
	Craiova – Melinești – Hurezani	57
	Ghimpați – Crevedia Mare – Găești	79
	Caracal – Drăgășani – Râmnicu Vâlcea	135		Partially four-lane road.
	Râmnicu Vâlcea – Băile Olănești	19
	Pitești – Slatina – Craiova	122	E 574 (entire route)
	Pitești – Costești – Roșiorii de Vede – Turnu Măgurele	124	E 70 (Roșiorii de Vede, overlap with DN6)
	DN65 – A1 (Pitești) Pitești southern ring road	7
	Craiova – Bălcești – Horezu	111
	DN65 – DN7 (Pitești) Pitești southwestern bypass	planned
	Roșiorii de Vede – Horezu	40
	DN65 – DN6 (Craiova) Craiova northern ring road	14
	Petroșani – Lupeni – Câmpu lui Neag	105
	Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Motru – Târgu Jiu – Horezu – Râmnicu Vâlcea	197
	Strehaia – Motru – Broșteni	24
	Scoarța – Târgu Cărbunești – Rusănești – Drăgășani – Pitești	189
	Sebeș – – Novaci – Ciocadia	148		Also known as the Transalpina.
	Băile Herculane – Baia de Aramă – Târgu Jiu	108
	Caransebeș – Oțelu Roșu – Subcetate	71
DN68A	Lugoj – Făget – Ilia	79	E 673 (entire route)
	Deva – Hunedoara	12
	Brezoi – Voineasa – Petroșani	108
	Sederhat – Turnu –> Hungary	10
DN7C	Arpașu de Jos – Bâlea Lake – Curtea de Argeș – Pitești	90		Also known as the Transfăgărășan.
	Câineni – Curtea de Argeș	61
	DN7 – DN7 (Arad)	7		Formerly DN7
	A1 – DN7 (Nădlac)	7
DN7CC	Călimănești ring road	8
	Tărtășești – Târgoviște – Pucioasa – Sinaia	110
	Găești – Târgoviște – Ploiești	76
	Târgoviște – Câmpulung	62
DN73	Brașov – Râșnov – Rucăr – Câmpulung – Pitești	133	E 574 (entire route)
DN73A	Predeal – Râșnov – Zărnești – Șercaia	68	E 574 (Râșnov, overlap with DN73)
	Cristian – Ghimbav	5
	Câmpulung – Curtea de Argeș – Râmnicu Vâlcea	70
	Argeșelu – Mioveni – Fântânea	49
	Brad – Abrud – Zlatna – Alba Iulia	105
	Câmpeni – Abrud	11
	Turda – Baia de Arieș – Câmpeni – Ștei	160
	Vârfurile – Ineu – Chișineu Criș – Vărșand –> Hungary	127
	Salonta –> Hungary	14

County and local roads[]

In 2009, a total of 35,048 kilometres (21,778 mi) of county roads (of which 24,100 km paved and 10,948 km gravel roads) and 30,162 kilometres (18,742 mi) of local roads (of which 6,043 km paved and 24,119 km gravel roads) existed in Romania.^[16]

At the end of 2019 there are 35,083 km (21,799 mi) of county roads and 33,435 km (20,775 mi) of local roads.^[1]

County roads[]

Out of the 35,083 km: 13,810 km (39.4%) are asphalt concrete roads of heavy/medium type, 13,227 km (37.7%) light asphalt road "clothing", 956 km (2.7%) concrete roads, 5,310 km (15%) cobblestone roads and 1,706 km (4.8%) dirt roads.^[1] Regarding the technical condition, 23% of asphalt concrete roads of heavy/medium type and 48% of light asphalt roads have exceeded their "service life" and are in need of some form of repair or replacement.^[1]

Local roads[]

Out of the 33,435 km: 7,418 km (22.1%) are light asphalt road "clothing", 5,506 km (16.5%) asphalt concrete roads of heavy/medium type, 810 km (2.4%) concrete roads, 12,377 km (37%) cobblestone roads and 7,305 km (21.8%) dirt roads.^[1] Regarding technical condition, 31% of light asphalt roads and 10% of asphalt concrete roads of heavy/medium type have exceeded their "service life" and are in need of some form of repair or replacement.^[1]

References[]

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