Tajikistani Civil War

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Tajikistani Civil War
Part of the Post-Soviet conflicts
An anti-government rally at Shakhidon Square, Dushanbe in May 1992, at the onset of civil war
Date 5 May 1992 – 27 June 1997 (5 years, 1 month, 3 weeks and 1 day) Location Tajikistan Result Military stalemate United Nations-sponsored armistice Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed Rahmon wins the 1999 Tajik presidential election The United Tajik Opposition is promised 30% of the ministerial positions[5]
Belligerents
Tajikistan Popular Front of Tajikistan[1] Communist Party of Tajikistan Socialist Party of Tajikistan  Russia  Uzbekistan  Kazakhstan  Kyrgyzstan UNMOT  Austria  Bangladesh  Bulgaria  Czech Republic  Denmark  Ghana  Hungary  India  Indonesia  Jordan    Nepal  Nigeria  Poland   Switzerland  Ukraine  Uruguay	United Tajik Opposition Islamic Renaissance Party Democratic Party Party of People's Unity Rastokhez Popular Movement Lali Badakhshan Gorno-Badakhshan[2] Jamiat-e Islami Islamic State of Afghanistan Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin Taliban factions1[3] Supported by: al-Qaeda[4] Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan  Pakistan (allegedly)  Saudi Arabia (allegedly)  Iran (allegedly)
Commanders and leaders
Rahmon Nabiyev Akbarsho Iskandrov Emomali Rahmon Islam Karimov Boris Yeltsin Nursultan Nazarbayev Askar Akayev Hassan Abaza	Sayid Abdulloh Nuri (UTO) Mohammed Sharif Himmatzade (IRP) Ibn al-Khattab Shadman Youssof (Democratic Party)
Strength
42,000–45,000 5,000–15,000 border troops 20.600 10,300 278[6]	Estimated around 60,000–70,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown
20,000–100,000 killed 40+ journalists killed[7] 1.2 million displaced
1The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, which was headed by the Taliban and governed 90% of Afghanistan, officially declared their neutrality in the conflict, though several Taliban factions went on to fight on the side of the opposition nonetheless.[3]

The Tajikistani Civil War (Tajik: Ҷанги шаҳрвандии Тоҷикистон, romanized: Jangi shahrvandi'i Tojikiston/Changi shahrvandiji Tochikiston), also known as the Tajik Civil War, began in May 1992 when regional groups from the Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan rose up against the newly-formed government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, which was dominated by people from the Khujand and Kulob regions. The rebel groups were led by a combination of liberal democratic reformers^[8] and Islamists, who would later organize under the banner of the United Tajik Opposition. The government was supported by Russian border guards.^[9]

The main zone of conflict was in the country's south, although disturbances occurred nationwide.^[10][11] The civil war was at its peak during its first year and dragged on for five years, devastating the country.^[10][12] An estimated 20,000^[13] to 100,000 people were killed by June 1997^[14][15] and about 10 to 20 percent of the population were internally displaced.^[9] On 27 June 1997, Tajikistan president Emomali Rahmon, United Tajik Opposition (UTO) leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General Gerd Merrem signed the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan and the Moscow Protocol in Moscow, Russia, ending the war.^[16]

History[]

Background[]

1990 Dushanbe riots.

There were numerous causes of civil war in Tajikistan, such as economic hardship, communal way of life of Tajiki people and their high religiosity. Under Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev's 'Perestroika' policies, a Muslim-Democratic movement began to emerge in Tajiki SSR. The backbone of opposition were Party of Tajikistan Muslim Resurrection, Democratic party of Tajikistan and some other movements. The fight between the former communist elite and opposition shifted from the political sphere to an ethnic and clan based one.

Tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against the results of the 1991 presidential election. President Rahmon Nabiyev and Speaker of the Supreme Soviet Safarali Kenjayev orchestrated the dispersal of weapons to pro-government militias, while the opposition turned to mujahidin in Afghanistan for military aid.

Conflict (1992–1993)[]

Fighting broke out in May 1992 between old-guard supporters of the government and a loosely organized opposition composed of ethnic and regional groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan areas (the latter were also known as Pamiris). Ideologically, the opposition included democratic liberal reformists and Islamists. The government, on the other hand, was dominated by people from the Leninabadi region, which had also made up most of the ruling elite during the entire Soviet period. It was also supported by people from the Kulob region, who had held high posts in the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Soviet times. After many clashes, the Leninabadis were forced to accept a compromise and a new coalition government was formed, incorporating members of the opposition and eventually dominated by them.^[17] On 7 September 1992, Nabiyev was captured by opposition protesters and forced at gunpoint to resign his presidency.^[15][18] Chaos and fighting between the opposing factions reigned outside of the capital Dushanbe.

With the aid of the Russian military and Uzbekistan, the Leninabadi-Kulobi Popular Front forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. The coalition government in the capital was forced to resign. In December 1992 the Supreme Soviet (parliament), where the Leninabadi-Kulobi faction had held the majority of seats all along, convened and elected a new government under the leadership of Emomali Rahmon, representing a shift in power from the old power based in Leninabad to the militias from Kulob, from which Rahmon came.^[19][20]

The height of hostilities occurred from 1992–93 and pitted Kulobi militias against an array of groups, including militants from the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRP) and ethnic minority Pamiris from Gorno-Badakhshan. In large part due to the foreign support they received, the Kulobi militias were able to soundly defeat opposition forces and went on what has been described by Human Rights Watch as an ethnic cleansing campaign against Pamiris and Garmis.^[21] The campaign was concentrated in areas south of the capital and included the murder of prominent individuals, mass killings, the burning of villages and the expulsion of the Pamiri and Garmi population into Afghanistan. The violence was particularly concentrated in Qurghonteppa, the power base of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan.^{[19][20][22][23]}

Continued conflict (1993–1997)[]

In Afghanistan, the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the Jamiat-i-Islami. The group's leader Ahmad Shah Masoud became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition. Later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the United Tajik Opposition, or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the Tavildara region, became the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, while the leadership of the UTO was opposed to the formation of the organization.^[24]

Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of central authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan was deployed. Most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were battling Russian troops in the capital city of Dushanbe. Islamic radicals from northern Afghanistan also began to fight Russian troops in the region.

Armistice and aftermath (1997–present)[]

24 June 2007. Holiday flags on streets of Khujand in honour of 'Day of National Unity', declared work-free holiday in 1998.

A United Nations-sponsored armistice finally ended the war in 1997. This was in part fostered by the Inter-Tajik Dialogue, a Track II diplomacy initiative in which the main players were brought together by international actors, namely the United States and Russia. The peace agreement completely eliminated the Leninabad region (Khujand) from power. Presidential elections were held on November 6, 1999.

The UTO warned in letters to United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and Tajik President Emomali Rahmon on 23 June 1997 that it would not sign the proposed peace agreement on June 27 if prisoner exchanges and the allocation of jobs in the coalition government were not outlined in the agreement. Akbar Turajonzoda, second-in-command of the UTO, repeated this warning on 26 June, but said both sides were negotiating. President Rahmon, UTO leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Russian President Boris Yeltsin met in the Kremlin in Moscow on 26 June to finish negotiating the peace agreement. The Tajik government had previously pushed for settling these issues after the two sides signed the agreement, with the posts in the coalition government decided by a joint commission for national reconciliation and prisoner exchanges by a future set of negotiations. Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov met with the Foreign Ministers of Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to discuss the proposed peace accord.^[25][26]

By the end of the war, Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The number of those killed was estimated at anywhere from 30,000 to as many as 60,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside the country. Tajikistan's physical infrastructure, government services and economy were in disarray and much of the population was surviving on subsistence handouts from international aid organizations. The United Nations established a Mission of Observers in December 1994, maintaining peace negotiations until the warring sides signed a comprehensive peace agreement in 1997.^[27]

Targeting of journalists[]

Journalists were particularly targeted for assassination and dozens of Tajik journalists were killed. Many more fled the country, leading to a brain drain. Notable individuals murdered include journalist and politician Otakhon Latifi, journalist and Jewish leader Meirkhaim Gavrielov, politician Safarali Kenjayev and four members of the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan: , a noted Japanese scholar of Central Asian history; Maj. from Poland; Maj. from Uruguay; and from Tajikistan;^[28] and documentary filmmaker Arcady Ruderman, from Belarus.

Gallery[]

• 

  Satellite photograph of Tajikistan

• 

  Spetsnaz troopers during the 1992 Tajik war

• 

  Destroyed turret of a T-62

• 

  Tajikistan factions in civil war: Leading clans: Northern Sughd Region (red), Southern Khatlon Region (blue), Eastern Islamic (green)

• 

  The most important cities involved in the conflict. 1) Khujand 2) Dushanbe 3) Gharm 4) Qurghonteppa 5) Kulob

See also[]

• Tajikistan-Uzbekistan relations
• United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan
• 1992 Tajikistan protests

References[]

Further reading[]

• Akbarzadeh, Shahram (1996). "Why did nationalism fail in Tajikistan?". Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (7): 1105–1129. doi:10.1080/09668139608412402.
• Djalili, Mohammad-Reza; Grare, Frédéric; Akiner, Shirin (1997). Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312161433.
• Roy, Olivier (2000). The New Central Asia, the Creation of Nations. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1860642799.
• Rashid, Ahmed (2002). Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300093454.
• Whitlock, Monica (2003). Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 031227727X.
• Таҷрибаи таърихии сулҳи Тоҷикистон. Маҷмӯи тезисҳои Симпозиуми байналмиллалӣ. Душанбе, 26-27 апрели соли 2001 (in Tajik). Душ. 2001.
• Усмон И. (2001). Сулҳнома (in Tajik). Dushanbe.
• Нури С. А. (2001). Оштинома (in Tajik). Dushanbe. p. 360.
• Akiner S. (2001). Tajikistan: Disintegration or Reconciliation?. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs. ISBN 1-86203-061-8.
• Саъдиев Ш. С. (2002). Тоҷикистон: роҳи сулҳ ва ризоияти милли (in Tajik). Dushanbe.
•  [uk] (2004). "Громадянська війна в Таджикистані".  [uk]: У 2-х т. 1. Kiev: Знання України. Редкол.:  [ru; uk; de] та ін. p. 760. ISBN 966-316-039-X.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) (in Ukrainian)

External links[]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Civil war in Tajikistan.

• (in Russian and English) Key texts and agreements in the Tajikistan peace process
• Tajikistan: Opposition criticizes Dushanbe's plan for Commission
• Tajikistan: Two Russian military personnel killed
• Tajikistan: Secular -- not Shari'a -- law prevails in eastern mountains
• Tajikistan Civil War 1992-1994