Warfare in Sumer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Phalanx on the Stele of the Vultures

Warfare in Sumer predominatly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby city-states. Sumerian armies consisted of bronze-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including spears, swords and sickle-swords, engaging each other in phalanx-like formations. When besieging cities, battering rams and sappers would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, chariots were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in Mesopotamian art — a major source of historical information.

History[]

A prisoner of war from Umma

During the Uruk Period of Sumerian history, some city-states began forming armies, as the increasing specialization of jobs in Sumer created new military professions. The armies of Sumer could have thousands of soldiers; some city states could field armies five thousand or six thousand men strong.[1] These large armies would consist of many military units — smaller units would often be combined into larger ones. One, known as the Nu-Banda, contained 60-100 men.[citation needed] Other known units include the Shub-Lugal, which served as household troops and made up the majority of Sargon's army. Some soldiers were called Niksum — these would be given plots of land. Skirmishers were called Nim, meaning "flies".[citation needed]

Weapons and tactics[]

Soldiers were well-trained and equipped; generals were also valued, with Sargon of Akkad appointing his to the position of Sagi-mah or chief cupbearer. Archaeological studies show that the Sumerians used war-carts and iron and bronze weapons;[1] most soldiers used axes, daggers, and spears; units with spears would be organized into close-order formations.[2] Armor included copper and bronze helmets, as well as bronze armor and cloaks studded in metal discs, although some depictions of light infantry show them without armor, only wearing skirts adorned with feathers. The oldest known helmet ever, the Golden Wig, was made of beaten and engraved gold with a wadded linen line. Bronze and copper alloy helmets dating back to 2500 BCE have also been found. By 2100 BCE, bronze scale armor had developed.[3]

Back view of the Meskalamdug Helmet.

To support the main army there would be light infantry equipped with javelins and bows. Sumerian soldiers used basic bows before the Akkadian Empire, but Sargon's empire spread the composite bow throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely the bow was given to the Akkadians by nomadic peoples; it became a very important Mesopotamian weapon, and many soldiers used them.[4][5] The armies also contained small chariots chariots, which generally had a crew of two: a charioteer and a warrior.[4] They were pulled by donkeys, mules, or crossbreeds; horses were not used and may have been too expensive to risk in combat.[1]

Causes and conflicts[]

One common cause for war was rivalries between city states, often caused by previous conflicts. For example, Umma and Lagash waged several wars against each other, while the cities of Ur, Uruk, and Kish all rivalled each other.[citation needed] Wars were often started as one city-state tried to secure greater power — a legendary example is Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, declining to become a vassal of Kish. Records show that some wars were started to control trade routes and their valuable resources.[4] King Meskiaggasher fought wars in the Zagros Mountains for timber, metal, and stone, while Sumerian myths recording wars against the mythical kingdom of Aratta most likely represent real campaigns in Iran for Lapis Lazuli and tin.[6] Elamites and Gutians would often raid the city-states' vital supply routes; many city-states formed military alliances to defend against such raiding.[1] It is probable that over time, inhabitants of villages migrated to the cities, because the cities provided greater protection, causing the rural population to shrink. Victory in war brought prestige and wealth to the king of the victorious city.[2]

During the Early Dynastic Period, there were an increasing amount of wars between rival Sumerian city-states. These wars were very small-scale: the cities of Umma and Lagash, who fought many wars against each other, are only 25 miles apart. Most battles took place only a few days march from each involved city-state. One war known to have taken place over a comparatively long distance, was between Kish and Elam, who were located 160 miles apart.[6] Modern historians know very little about the tactics of Sumerian armies because records glorify victories, but rarely talk about how the battle was fought.[4] Sumerian soldiers would besiege cities using battering rams and sappers while the defenders built towers.[1] Although the walls of some ancient Sumerian cities may not have initially served as defensive fortifications, being originally designed to protect cities from wild animals and floods, and to demonstrate the power and wealth of a settlement, they eventually took on a defensive aspect; moats also become widely used in the 13th century B.C.[1] Once a city was captured, its walls would be destroyed in order to humiliate the city, which was also looted. A large section of the population would often be captured and enslaved, while the victor would dedicate the spoils of war to the patron deity of their city.[1]

Depictions[]

The Royal Standard of Ur

Depictions of warfare are a common theme in Mesopotamian art. Usually the art, commissioned by the victors, would celebrate and glorify a military victory. Some notable examples are the Royal Standard of Ur and the Steele of the Vultures: the Royal Standard depicts soldiers, led by the king of Ur, marching over the corpses of their enemy, while others drag prisoners of war behind them; while the Steele of Vultures depicts the king of Lagash defeating the king of Umma, soldiers marching in a phalanx-like formation, and vultures carrying the severed heads of the soldiers from Umma, who had fallen in heaps in front of the soldiers from Lagash.[7] Epigraphy and archaeological records show other depictions of warfare.[5]

References[]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g McIntosh, Jane (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-965-2.
  2. ^ a b DK (2012-04-16). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-0373-5.
  3. ^ Travis, Hilary & John (2014-12-15). Roman Helmets. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-3847-8.
  4. ^ a b c d Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006-01-19). Warfare in the Ancient World. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78159-263-2.
  5. ^ a b Elliott, Simon (2020-05-19). Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East. Casemate. ISBN 978-1-61200-794-6.
  6. ^ a b Hamblin, William J. (2006-09-27). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
  7. ^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7481-5.
Retrieved from ""