Close back rounded vowel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Close back rounded vowel
u
IPA Number308
Encoding
Entity (decimal)u
Unicode (hex)U+0075
X-SAMPAu
Audio sample
0:00
source · help

The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨u⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is u.

In most languages, this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips ('endolabial'). However, in a few cases the lips are compressed ('exolabial').

[u] alternates with labio-velar approximant [w] in certain languages, such as French, and in the diphthongs of some languages, [u̯] with the non-syllabic diacritic and [w] are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound.

Close back protruded vowel[]

The close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨u⟩ (the convention used in this article). As there is no dedicated IPA diacritic for protrusion, the symbol for the close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨  ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨u̫⟩. Another possible transcription is ⟨uʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯʷ⟩ (a close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong.

Features[]

  • Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.

Occurrence[]

Language Word IPA Meaning Notes
Afrikaans Standard[2] boek [bu̜k] 'book' Only weakly rounded.[3] See Afrikaans phonology
Arabic Standard[4] جنوب‎/ǧanuub [d͡ʒaˈnuːb] 'south' See Arabic phonology
Armenian Eastern[5] դուռ/dur [dur] 'door'
Bavarian Amstetten dialect[6] und [und̥] 'and' Contrasts close [u], near-close [o̝], close-mid [o] and open-mid [ɔ] back rounded vowels in addition to the open central unrounded [ä].[6]
Bulgarian[7] луд/lud [ɫut̪] 'crazy' See Bulgarian phonology
Catalan[8] suc [s̺uk] 'juice' See Catalan phonology
Chinese Mandarin[9][10] 土 / tǔ [tʰu˨˩˦] 'earth' See Standard Chinese phonology
Cantonese[11] 夫 / fū About this sound[fuː˥] 'man' See Cantonese phonology
Shanghainese[12] 瓜/ku [ku˩] 'melon' Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[12]
Chuvash урам [ur'am] 'street'
Danish Standard[13][14] du [tu] 'you' See Danish phonology
Dutch Standard[15][16] voet About this sound[vut] 'foot' Somewhat fronted in Belgian Standard Dutch.[16]
English Australian[17] book [buk] 'book' Also described as near-close near-back [ʊ];[18][19] corresponds to [ʊ] in other accents. See Australian English phonology
Cape Flats[20] May be advanced to [ʉ], or lowered and unrounded to [ɤ].[20] See South African English phonology
Cultivated South African[21] boot [bu̟ːt] 'boot' Typically more front than cardinal [u]. Instead of being back, it may be central [ʉː] in Geordie and RP, and front [yː] in Multicultural London. See English phonology and South African English phonology
General American[22]
Geordie[23]
Multicultural London[24]
Received Pronunciation[25]
Welsh[26][27][28]
Pakistani[29] [buːʈ]
Greater New York City [buːt][30]
New Zealand[31][32] treacle [ˈtɹ̝̊iːku] 'treacle' Possible realization of the unstressed vowel /ɯ/, which is variable in rounding and ranges from central to (more often) back and close to close-mid.[31][32] Corresponds to /əl/ in other accents. See New Zealand English phonology
Estonian[33] sule [ˈsule̞] 'feather' (gen. sg.) See Estonian phonology
Finnish[34][35] kukka [ˈkukːɑ] 'flower' See Finnish phonology
Faroese[36] gulur [ˈkuːlʊɹ] 'yellow' See Faroese phonology
French[37][38] où About this sound[u] 'where' See French phonology
Georgian[39] გუდა/guda [ɡudɑ] 'leather bag'
German Standard[40][41] Fuß About this sound[fuːs] 'foot' See Standard German phonology
Many speakers[42] Stunde [ˈʃtundə] 'hour' The usual realization of /ʊ/ in Switzerland, Austria and partially also in Western and Southwestern Germany (Palatinate, Swabia).[42] See Standard German phonology
Greek Modern Standard[43][44] που / pou [pu] 'where' See Modern Greek phonology
Hungarian[45] út [uːt̪] 'way' See Hungarian phonology
Icelandic[46][47] þú [θ̠u] 'you' See Icelandic phonology
Indonesian[48] Standard Indonesian unta [unta] 'camel' See Indonesian phonology
Italian[49] tutto [ˈt̪ut̪t̪o] 'all', 'everything' See Italian phonology
Kaingang[50] nduki [ˈndukːi] 'in the belly'
Korean 눈 / nun [nuːn] 'snow' See Korean phonology
Kurdish[51][52][53] Kurmanji (Northern) çû [t͡ʃʰuː] 'wood' See Kurdish phonology
Sorani (Central) چوو/çû
Palewani (Southern)
Latin Classical[54] sus [suːs] 'pig'
Limburgish[55][56] sjoen [ʃu̟n] 'beautiful' Back[56] or near-back,[55] depending on the dialect. The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect.
Lower Sorbian[57] zub [z̪up] 'tooth'
Luxembourgish[58] Luucht [luːχt] 'air' See Luxembourgish phonology
Malay ubat [u.bät] 'medicine' See Malay phonology
Mongolian[59] үүр/üür [uːɾɘ̆] 'nest'
Persian دور/dur [duɾ] 'far' See Persian phonology
Polish[60] buk About this sound[buk] 'beech tree' Also represented orthographically by ⟨ó⟩. See Polish phonology
Portuguese[61] tu [ˈtu] 'you' See Portuguese phonology
Romanian[62] unu [ˈun̪u] 'one' See Romanian phonology
Russian[63] узкий/uzkiy/uzkij About this sound[ˈus̪kʲɪj] 'narrow' See Russian phonology
Serbo-Croatian[64] дуга / duga [d̪ǔːɡä] 'rainbow' See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Shiwiar[65] [example needed]
Spanish[66] curable [kuˈɾäβ̞le̞] 'curable' See Spanish phonology
Sotho[67] tumo [tʼumɔ] 'fame' Contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[67] See Sotho phonology
Swahili ubongo [ubongo] 'brain'
Thai Standard[68] ชลบุรี/chonburi About this sound[tɕ͡ʰōn.bū.rīː] (help·info) 'Chonburi'
Turkish[69][70] uzak [uˈz̪äk] 'far' See Turkish phonology
Udmurt[71] урэтэ/urėtė [urete] 'to divide'
Ukrainian[72] рух/rukg [rux] 'motion' See Ukrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian[57][73] žuk [ʒuk] 'beetle' See Upper Sorbian phonology
Urdu دُور‎/dur [duɾ] 'far' See Urdu phonology
Welsh mwg [muːɡ] 'smoke' See Welsh phonology
Yoruba[74] itọju [itɔju]
Zapotec Tilquiapan[75] gdu [ɡdu] 'all'

Close back compressed vowel[]

Close back compressed vowel
u͍
ɯᵝ
Audio sample
0:00
source · help

Some languages, such as Japanese and Swedish, have a close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.[76] Only Shanghainese is known to contrast it with the more typical protruded (endolabial) close back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.[12]

There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯᵝ⟩ ([ɯ] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨  ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨u͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded.

Features[]

  • Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.

Occurrence[]

Language Word IPA Meaning Notes
Chinese Shanghainese[12] 都/tub [tɯᵝ˩] 'capital' Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[12]
Japanese[77] 空気 / kūki About this sound[kɯ̟ᵝːki] 'air' Near-back; may be realized as central [ɨᵝ] by younger speakers.[77] See Japanese phonology
Lizu[78] [Fmɯ̟ᵝ][clarification needed] 'feather' Near-back.[78]
Norwegian[79][80] mot [mɯᵝːt] 'courage' The example word is from Urban East Norwegian, in which the vowel can be diphthongized to [ɯᵝə̯].[81] See Norwegian phonology
Swedish Central Standard[82][83] oro [²ɯᵝːrɯᵝː] 'unease' Often realized as a sequence [ɯᵝβ̞] or [ɯᵝβ][82] (hear the word: About this sound[²ɯᵝβrɯᵝβ]). See Swedish phonology

See also[]

Citations[]

  1. ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
  2. ^ Donaldson (1993), pp. 2, 5.
  3. ^ Donaldson (1993), p. 5.
  4. ^ Thelwall & Sa'Adeddin (1990), p. 38.
  5. ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290)
  7. ^ Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
  8. ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
  9. ^ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 110–111.
  10. ^ Duanmu (2007), pp. 35–36.
  11. ^ Zee (1999), pp. 59–60.
  12. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
  13. ^ Grønnum (1998), p. 100.
  14. ^ Basbøll (2005), p. 46.
  15. ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47.
  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Verhoeven (2005), p. 245.
  17. ^ Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
  18. ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009a).
  19. ^ Lindsey (2012).
  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Finn (2004), p. 970.
  21. ^ Lass (2002), p. 116.
  22. ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009b).
  23. ^ Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
  24. ^ Gimson (2014), p. 91.
  25. ^ Roach (2004), p. 242.
  26. ^ Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95.
  27. ^ Connolly (1990), p. 125.
  28. ^ Tench (1990), p. 135.
  29. ^ Mahboob & Ahmar (2004), p. 1007.
  30. ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. chpt. 17.CS1 maint: location (link)
  31. ^ Jump up to: a b "NZE Phonology" (PDF). Victoria University of Wellington. p. 3.
  32. ^ Jump up to: a b Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 585.
  33. ^ Asu & Teras (2009), p. 368.
  34. ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 60, 66.
  35. ^ Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 21.
  36. ^ Árnason (2011), pp. 68, 74.
  37. ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
  38. ^ Collins & Mees (2013), p. 225.
  39. ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), pp. 261–262.
  40. ^ Hall (2003), pp. 87, 107.
  41. ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
  43. ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 28.
  44. ^ Trudgill (2009), p. 81.
  45. ^ Szende (1994), p. 92.
  46. ^ Árnason (2011), p. 60.
  47. ^ Einarsson (1945:10), cited in Gussmann (2011:73)
  48. ^ "Indonesian Alphabet and Pronunciation". mylanguages.org. Retrieved 2021-05-17.
  49. ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 119.
  50. ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
  51. ^ Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
  52. ^ Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8-16.
  53. ^ Fattah describes the sound as being voyelle longue centrale arrondie (p. 116).
  54. ^ Wheelock's Latin (1956).
  55. ^ Jump up to: a b Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 159.
  56. ^ Jump up to: a b Peters (2006), p. 119.
  57. ^ Jump up to: a b Stone (2002), p. 600.
  58. ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
  59. ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 62, 66–67.
  60. ^ Jassem (2003), p. 105.
  61. ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  62. ^ Sarlin (2014), p. 18.
  63. ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 67.
  64. ^ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
  65. ^ Fast Mowitz (1975), p. 2.
  66. ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 256.
  67. ^ Jump up to: a b Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
  68. ^ Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993), p. 24.
  69. ^ Zimmer & Organ (1999), p. 155.
  70. ^ Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 11.
  71. ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 64, 68.
  72. ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
  73. ^ Šewc-Schuster (1984), p. 20.
  74. ^ Bamgboṣe (1969), p. 166.
  75. ^ Merrill (2008), p. 109.
  76. ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 295.
  77. ^ Jump up to: a b Okada (1999), p. 118.
  78. ^ Jump up to: a b Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 78.
  79. ^ Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 17.
  80. ^ While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
  81. ^ Vanvik (1979), p. 17.
  82. ^ Jump up to: a b Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
  83. ^ Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.

References[]

  • Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
  • Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
  • Asu, Eva Liina; Teras, Pire (2009), "Estonian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 367–372, doi:10.1017/s002510030999017x
  • Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4
  • Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul (2004), "New Zealand English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 580–602, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
  • Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618
  • Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
  • Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Lizu" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 75–86, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000242[permanent dead link]
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003], Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2
  • Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
  • Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192
  • Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
  • Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
  • Doke, Clement Martyn; Mofokeng, S. Machabe (1974), Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar (3rd ed.), Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, ISBN 978-0-582-61700-1
  • Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
  • Duanmu, San (2007) [First published 2000], The Phonology of Standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921578-2
  • Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
  • Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
  • Einarsson, Stefán (1945), Icelandic. Grammar texts glossary., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, ISBN 978-0801863578
  • Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Fast Mowitz, Gerhard (1975), Sistema fonológico del idioma achual, Lima: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano
  • Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 964–984, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
  • Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1993), "French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874
  • Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
  • Gimson, Alfred Charles (2014), Cruttenden, Alan (ed.), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
  • Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
  • Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290
  • Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X
  • Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
  • Gussmann, Edmund (2011). Getting your head around: the vowel system of Modern Icelandic (PDF). Folia Scandinavica Posnaniensia. 12. pp. 71–90. ISBN 978-83-232-2296-5.
  • Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-6689-4
  • Haugen, Einar (1974) [1965], Norwegian-English Dictionary, The University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0-299-03874-8
  • Iivonen, Antti; Harnud, Huhe (2005), "Acoustical comparison of the monophthong systems in Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (1): 59–71, doi:10.1017/S002510030500191X
  • Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
  • Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble", Anais do SETA, Campinas, 3: 675–685
  • Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
  • Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
  • Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996), The Sounds of the World's Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-19814-7
  • Landau, Ernestina; Lončarića, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052
  • Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
  • Lindsey, Geoff (2012). "The British English vowel system". English Speech Services.
  • Mahboob, Ahmar; Ahmar, Nadra H. (2004), "Pakistani English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.), A handbook of varieties of English, 1, Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1003–1015
  • Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009a), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
  • Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009b), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
  • Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
  • Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
  • Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0
  • Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (1): 117–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
  • Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768
  • Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
  • Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2
  • Sarlin, Mika (2014) [First published 2013], "Sounds of Romanian and their spelling", Romanian Grammar (2nd ed.), Helsinki: Books on Demand GmbH, pp. 16–37, ISBN 978-952-286-898-5
  • Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
  • Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
  • Stone, Gerald (2002), "Sorbian (Upper and Lower)", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 593–685, ISBN 9780415280785
  • Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish sound structure – Phonetics, phonology, phonotactics and prosody (PDF), Studia Humaniora Ouluensia 9, Oulu University Press, ISBN 978-951-42-8984-2
  • Szende, Tamás (1994), "Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090
  • Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
  • Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999), "Bulgarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–39, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266
  • Tingsabadh, M. R. Kalaya; Abramson, Arthur S. (1993), "Thai", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (1): 24–28, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004746
  • Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 2: 289–333
  • Trudgill, Peter (2009), "Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 9 (1): 80–97, doi:10.1163/156658409X12500896406041
  • Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7
  • Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
  • Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001397
  • Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–60, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0

External links[]

Retrieved from ""