Potassium nitrate

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Potassium nitrate[1]
Potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrate structure.svg
Potassium-nitrate-unit-cell-3D-vdW.png
Names
IUPAC name
Potassium nitrate
Other names
Saltpeter
Saltpetre
Nitrate of potash[2]
Identifiers
  • 7757-79-1 checkY
3D model (JSmol)
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.926 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 231-818-8
E number E252 (preservatives)
KEGG
RTECS number
  • TT3700000
UNII
UN number 1486
Properties
Chemical formula
 KNO3
Molar mass 101.1032 g/mol
Appearance white solid
Odor odorless
Density 2.109 g/cm3 (16 °C)
Melting point 334 °C (633 °F; 607 K)
Boiling point 400 °C (752 °F; 673 K) (decomposes)
133 g/1000 g water (0 °C)
316 g/1000 g water (20 °C)
383 g/1000 g water (25 °C)
2439 g/1000 g water (100 °C)[3]
Solubility slightly soluble in ethanol
soluble in glycerol, ammonia
Basicity (pKb) 15.3[4]
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
 −33.7·10−6 cm3/mol
Refractive index (nD)
 1.335, 1.5056, 1.5604
Structure
Orthorhombic, Aragonite
Thermochemistry
95.06 J/mol K
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfH⦵298)
 -494.00 kJ/mol
Hazards
Main hazards Oxidant, harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed on skin. Causes irritation to skin and eye area.
Safety data sheet See: data page
ICSC 0184
GHS pictograms GHS03: Oxidizing GHS07: Harmful
GHS hazard statements
 H272, H315, H319, H335
P102, P210, P220, P221, P280
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
1
0
0
OX
Flash point non-flammable (oxidizer)
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
 1901 mg/kg (oral, rabbit)
3750 mg/kg (oral, rat)[5]
Related compounds
Other anions
 Potassium nitrite
Other cations
 Lithium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
Rubidium nitrate
Caesium nitrate
Related compounds
 Potassium sulfate
Potassium chloride
Supplementary data page
Structure and
properties
 Refractive index (n),
Dielectric constant (εr), etc.
Thermodynamic
data
 Phase behaviour
solid–liquid–gas
Spectral data
 UV, IR, NMR, MS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N  (what is checkY☒N ?)
Infobox references

Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula KNO
3. It is an ionic salt of potassium ions K+ and nitrate ions NO3−, and is therefore an alkali metal nitrate. It occurs in nature as a mineral, niter (or nitre in the UK).[6] It is a source of nitrogen, and nitrogen was named after niter. Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpetre (or saltpeter in North America).[6]

Major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the major constituents of gunpowder (black powder).[7] In processed meats, potassium nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and myoglobin generating a red color.[8]

Properties[]

Potassium nitrate has an orthorhombic crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to a trigonal system at 129 °C (264 °F).

Potassium nitrate is moderately soluble in water, but its solubility increases with temperature. The aqueous solution is almost neutral, exhibiting pH 6.2 at 14 °C (57 °F) for a 10% solution of commercial powder. It is not very hygroscopic, absorbing about 0.03% water in 80% relative humidity over 50 days. It is insoluble in alcohol and is not poisonous; it can react explosively with reducing agents, but it is not explosive on its own.[3]

Thermal decomposition[]

Between 550–790 °C (1,022–1,454 °F), potassium nitrate reaches a temperature-dependent equilibrium with potassium nitrite:[9]

2 KNO3 ⇌ 2 KNO2 + O2

History of production[]

From mineral sources[]

In Ancient India, saltpeter manufacturers formed the Nuniya caste.[10] Saltpeter finds mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra (compiled 300BC - 300AD), which mentions using its poisonous smoke as a weapon of war,[11] although its use for propulsion did not appear until medieval times.

A purification process for potassium nitrate was outlined in 1270 by the chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices). In this book, al-Rammah describes first the purification of barud (crude saltpeter mineral) by boiling it with minimal water and using only the hot solution, then the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium by precipitation of their carbonates from this solution, leaving a solution of purified potassium nitrate, which could then be dried.[12] This was used for the manufacture of gunpowder and explosive devices. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicated a Chinese origin for the gunpowder weapons about which he wrote.[13]

At least as far back as 1845, nitratite deposits were exploited in Chile and California.

From caves[]

A major natural source of potassium nitrate was the deposits crystallizing from cave walls and the accumulations of bat guano in caves.[14] Extraction is accomplished by immersing the guano in water for a day, filtering, and harvesting the crystals in the filtered water. Traditionally, guano was the source used in Laos for the manufacture of gunpowder for Bang Fai rockets.

LeConte[]

Perhaps the most exhaustive discussion of the production of this material is the 1862 LeConte text.[15] He was writing with the express purpose of increasing production in the Confederate States to support their needs during the American Civil War. Since he was calling for the assistance of rural farming communities, the descriptions and instructions are both simple and explicit. He details the "French Method", along with several variations, as well as a "Swiss method". N.B. Many references have been made to a method using only straw and urine, but there is no such method in this work.

French method[]

Turgot and Lavoisier created the Régie des Poudres et Salpêtres a few years before the French Revolution. Niter-beds were prepared by mixing manure with either mortar or wood ashes, common earth and organic materials such as straw to give porosity to a compost pile typically 4 feet (1.2 m) high, 6 feet (1.8 m) wide, and 15 feet (4.6 m) long.[15] The heap was usually under a cover from the rain, kept moist with urine, turned often to accelerate the decomposition, then finally leached with water after approximately one year, to remove the soluble calcium nitrate which was then converted to potassium nitrate by filtering through potash.

Swiss method[]

LeConte describes a process using only urine and not dung, referring to it as the Swiss method. Urine is collected directly, in a sandpit under a stable. The sand itself is dug out and leached for nitrates which were then converted to potassium nitrate using potash, as above.

From nitric acid[]

From 1903 until the World War I era, potassium nitrate for black powder and fertilizer was produced on an industrial scale from nitric acid produced using the Birkeland–Eyde process, which used an electric arc to oxidize nitrogen from the air. During World War I the newly industrialized Haber process (1913) was combined with the Ostwald process after 1915, allowing Germany to produce nitric acid for the war after being cut off from its supplies of mineral sodium nitrates from Chile (see nitratite).

Production[]

Potassium nitrate can be made by combining ammonium nitrate and potassium hydroxide.

NH4NO3 (aq) + KOH (aq) → NH3 (g) + KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

An alternative way of producing potassium nitrate without a by-product of ammonia is to combine ammonium nitrate, found in instant ice packs,[16] and potassium chloride, easily obtained as a sodium-free salt substitute.

NH4NO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → NH4Cl (aq) + KNO3 (aq)

Potassium nitrate can also be produced by neutralizing nitric acid with potassium hydroxide. This reaction is highly exothermic.

KOH (aq) + HNO3 → KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

On industrial scale it is prepared by the double displacement reaction between sodium nitrate and potassium chloride.

NaNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + KNO3 (aq)

Uses[]

Potassium nitrate has a wide variety of uses, largely as a source of nitrate.

Nitric acid production[]

Historically, nitric acid was produced by combining sulfuric acid with nitrates such as saltpeter. In modern times this is reversed: nitrates are produced from nitric acid produced via the Ostwald process.

Oxidizer[]

A demonstration of the oxidation of a piece of charcoal in molten potassium nitrate

The most famous use of potassium nitrate is probably as the oxidizer in blackpowder. From the most ancient times until the late 1880s, blackpowder provided the explosive power for all the world's firearms. After that time, small arms and large artillery increasingly began to depend on cordite, a smokeless powder. Blackpowder remains in use today in black powder rocket motors, but also in combination with other fuels like sugars in "rocket candy". It is also used in fireworks such as smoke bombs.[17] It is also added to cigarettes to maintain an even burn of the tobacco[18] and is used to ensure complete combustion of paper cartridges for cap and ball revolvers.[19] It can also be heated to several hundred degrees to be used for niter bluing, which is less durable than other forms of protective oxidation, but allows for specific and often beautiful coloration of steel parts, such as screws, pins, and other small parts of firearms.

Meat processing[]

Potassium nitrate has been a common ingredient of salted meat since antiquity[20] or the Middle Ages.[21] The widespread adoption of nitrate use is more recent and is linked to the development of large-scale meat processing.[7] The use of potassium nitrate has been mostly discontinued because of slow and inconsistent results compared to sodium nitrite compounds such as "Prague powder" or pink "curing salt". Even so, potassium nitrate is still used in some food applications, such as salami, dry-cured ham, charcuterie, and (in some countries) in the brine used to make corned beef (sometimes together with sodium nitrite).[22] When used as a food additive in the European Union,[23] the compound is referred to as E252; it is also approved for use as a food additive in the United States[24] and Australia and New Zealand[25] (where it is listed under its INS number 252).[3]

Food preparation[]

In West African cuisine, potassium nitrate (saltpetre) is widely used as a thickening agent in soups and stews such as okra soup[26] and isi ewu. It is also used to soften food and reduce cooking time when boiling beans and tough meat. Saltpetre is also an essential ingredient in making special porridges, such as kunun kanwa[27] literally translated from the Hausa language as 'saltpetre porridge'. In the Shetland Islands (UK) it is used in the curing of mutton to make reestit mutton, a local delicacy.[28]

Fertilizer[]

Potassium nitrate is used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and potassium – two of the macronutrients for plants. When used by itself, it has an NPK rating of 13-0-44.[29][30]

Pharmacology[]

  • Used in some toothpastes for sensitive teeth.[31] Recently, the use of potassium nitrate in toothpastes for treating sensitive teeth has increased.[32][33]
  • Used historically to treat asthma.[34] Used in some toothpastes to relieve asthma symptoms.[35]
  • Used in Thailand as main ingredient in kidney tablets to relieve the symptoms of cystitis, pyelitis and urethritis.[36]
  • Combats high blood pressure and was once used as a hypotensive.[37]

Other uses[]

  • Electrolyte in a salt bridge
  • Active ingredient of condensed aerosol fire suppression systems. When burned with the free radicals of a fire's flame, it produces potassium carbonate.[38]
  • Works as an aluminium cleaner.
  • Component (usually about 98%) of some tree stump removal products. It accelerates the natural decomposition of the stump by supplying nitrogen for the fungi attacking the wood of the stump.[39]
  • In heat treatment of metals as a medium temperature molten salt bath, usually in combination with sodium nitrite. A similar bath is used to produce a durable blue/black finish typically seen on firearms. Its oxidizing quality, water solubility, and low cost make it an ideal short-term rust inhibitor.[40]
  • To induce flowering of mango trees in the Philippines.[41][42]
  • Thermal storage medium in power generation systems. Sodium and potassium nitrate salts are stored in a molten state with the solar energy collected by the heliostats at the Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Ternary salts, with the addition of calcium nitrate or lithium nitrate, have been found to improve the heat storage capacity in the molten salts.[43]
  • As a source of potassium ions for exchange with sodium ions in chemically strengthened glass.
  • As an oxidizer in model rocket fuel called Rocket candy.

Etymology[]

Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names. Hebrew and Egyptian words for it had the consonants n-t-r, indicating likely cognation in the Greek nitron, which was Latinised to nitrum or nitrium. Thence Old French had niter and Middle English nitre. By the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpetre,[44] specifically indian saltpetre (sodium nitrate is chile saltpetre) and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood.

The Arabs called it "Chinese snow" (Arabic: ثلج الصين‎ thalj al-ṣīn). It was called "Chinese salt" by the Iranians/Persians[45][46][47][48][49] or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" (Persian: نمک شوره چينی‎ namak shūra chīnī).[50][51]

In folklore and popular culture[]

Potassium nitrate was once thought to induce impotence, and is still rumored to be in institutional food (such as military fare) as an anaphrodisiac; however, there is no scientific evidence for such properties.[52][53]

In Bank Shot, El (Joanna Cassidy) propositions Walter Ballantine (George C. Scott), who tells her that he has been fed saltpeter in prison. "You know why they feed you saltpeter in prison?" Ballantine asks her. She shakes her head no. They kiss. He glances down at his crotch, making a gesture that reveals his body has not responded to her advances, and says, "That's why they feed you saltpeter in prison."

In One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Randall is asked by the nurses to take his medications, but not knowing what they are, he mentions he doesn't want anyone to 'slip me saltpeter'. He then proceeds to imitate the motions of masturbation in reference to its supposed effects as an anaphrodisiac.

In 1776, John Adams asks his wife Abigail to make saltpeter for the Continental Army. She, eventually, is able to do so in exchange for pins for sewing.[54]

In the Star Trek episode "Arena", Captain Kirk injures a gorn using a rudimentary cannon that he constructs using potassium nitrate as a key ingredient of gunpowder.

In 21 Jump Street, Jenko, played by Channing Tatum, gives a rhyming presentation about potassium nitrate for his chemistry class.

In Eating Raoul, Paul hires a dominatrix to impersonate a nurse and trick Raoul into consuming saltpeter in a ploy to reduce his sexual appetite for his wife.

In the Simpsons episode El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer (The Mysterious Voyage of Homer), Mr. Burns is seen pouring saltpeter into his chili entry, titled Old Elihu's Yale-Style Saltpeter Chili.

See also[]

  • Nitrocellulose
  • Potassium perchlorate
  • Niter, a mineral form of Potassium Nitrate

References[]

  1. ^ Record of Potassium nitrate in the GESTIS Substance Database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, accessed on 2007-03-09.
  2. ^ Gustafson, A. F. (1949). Handbook of Fertilizers - Their Sources, Make-Up, Effects, And Use. p. 25. ISBN 9781473384521. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c B. J. Kosanke; B. Sturman; K. Kosanke; I. von Maltitz; T. Shimizu; M. A. Wilson; N. Kubota; C. Jennings-White; D. Chapman (2004). "2". Pyrotechnic Chemistry. Journal of Pyrotechnics. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1-889526-15-7. Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.
  4. ^ Kolthoff, Treatise on Analytical Chemistry, New York, Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., 1959.
  5. ^ chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov Archived 2014-08-12 at the Wayback Machine
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  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Lauer, Klaus (1991). "The history of nitrite in human nutrition: A contribution from German cookery books". Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 44 (3): 261–264. doi:10.1016/0895-4356(91)90037-a. ISSN 0895-4356. PMID 1999685.
  8. ^ Haldane, J. (1901). "The Red Colour of Salted Meat". The Journal of Hygiene. 1 (1): 115–122. doi:10.1017/S0022172400000097. ISSN 0022-1724. PMC 2235964. PMID 20474105.
  9. ^ Eli S. Freeman (1957). "The Kinetics of the Thermal Decomposition of Potassium Nitrate and of the Reaction between Potassium Nitrite and Oxygen". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (4): 838–842. doi:10.1021/ja01561a015.
  10. ^ Sen, Sudipta (2019). Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-300-11916-9.
  11. ^ Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-7809-3765-6.
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  13. ^ Jack Kelly (2005). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-465-03722-3. Archived from the original on 2016-05-11. Around 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpeter (“Chinese snow”) from the East, perhaps through India. They knew of gunpowder soon afterward. They also learned about fireworks (“Chinese flowers”) and rockets (“Chinese arrows”). Arab warriors had acquired fire lances by 1280. Around that same year, a Syrian named Hasan al-Rammah wrote a book that, as he put it, "treat of machines of fire to be used for amusement of for useful purposes." He talked of rockets, fireworks, fire lances, and other incendiaries, using terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources. He gave instructions for the purification of saltpeter and recipes for making different types of gunpowder.
  14. ^ Major George Rains (1861). Notes on Making Saltpetre from the Earth of the Caves. New Orleans, LA: Daily Delta Job Office. p. 14. Archived from the original on July 29, 2013. Retrieved September 13, 2012.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Joseph LeConte (1862). Instructions for the Manufacture of Saltpeter. Columbia, S.C.: South Carolina Military Department. p. 14. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
  16. ^ "How Refrigerators Work". HowStuffWorks. 2006-11-29. Retrieved 2018-11-02.
  17. ^ Amthyst Galleries, Inc Archived 2008-11-04 at the Wayback Machine. Galleries.com. Retrieved on 2012-03-07.
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  21. ^ "Meat Science", University of Wisconsin. uwex.edu.
  22. ^ Corned Beef Archived 2008-03-19 at the Wayback Machine, Food Network
  23. ^ UK Food Standards Agency: "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Archived from the original on 2010-10-07. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  24. ^ US Food and Drug Administration: "Listing of Food Additives Status Part II". Archived from the original on 2011-11-08. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  25. ^ Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code "Standard 1.2.4 – Labelling of ingredients". Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  26. ^ "Cook Clean Site Ghanaian Recipe". CookClean Ghana. Archived from the original on 2013-08-28.
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  28. ^ Brown, Catherine (2011-11-14). A Year In A Scots Kitchen. Neil Wilson Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9781906476847.
  29. ^ Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-896: N-P-K Fertilizers Archived 2015-12-24 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ Hall, William L; Robarge, Wayne P; Meeting, American Chemical Society (2004). Environmental Impact of Fertilizer on Soil and Water. p. 40. ISBN 9780841238114. Archived from the original on 2018-01-27.
  31. ^ "Sensodyne Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth". 2008-08-03. Archived from the original on August 7, 2007. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
  32. ^ Enomoto, K; et al. (2003). "The Effect of Potassium Nitrate and Silica Dentifrice in the Surface of Dentin". Japanese Journal of Conservative Dentistry. 46 (2): 240–247. Archived from the original on 2010-01-11.
  33. ^ R. Orchardson & D. G. Gillam (2006). "Managing dentin hypersensitivity" (PDF). Journal of the American Dental Association. 137 (7): 990–8, quiz 1028–9. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2006.0321. PMID 16803826. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-29.
  34. ^ Orville Harry Brown (1917). Asthma, presenting an exposition of the nonpassive expiration theory. C.V. Mosby company. p. 277.
  35. ^ Joe Graedon (May 15, 2010). "'Sensitive' toothpaste may help asthma". The Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on September 16, 2011. Retrieved June 18, 2012.
  36. ^ Local manufactured drug registration for human (combine)[permanent dead link]. fda.moph.go.th
  37. ^ Reichert ET. (1880). "On the physiological action of potassium nitrite". Am. J. Med. Sci. 80: 158–180. doi:10.1097/00000441-188007000-00011.
  38. ^ Adam Chattaway; Robert G. Dunster; Ralf Gall; David J. Spring. "The evaluation of non-pyrotechnically generated aerosols as fire suppressants" (PDF). United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-29.
  39. ^ Stan Roark (February 27, 2008). "Stump Removal for Homeowners". Alabama Cooperative Extension System. Archived from the original on March 23, 2012.
  40. ^ David E. Turcotte; Frances E. Lockwood (May 8, 2001). "Aqueous corrosion inhibitor Note. This patent cites potassium nitrate as a minor constituent in a complex mix. Since rust is an oxidation product, this statement requires justification". United States Patent. 6,228,283. Archived from the original on January 27, 2018.
  41. ^ Elizabeth March (June 2008). "The Scientist, the Patent and the Mangoes – Tripling the Mango Yield in the Philippines". WIPO Magazine. United Nations World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Archived from the original on 25 August 2012.
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  43. ^ Juan Ignacio Burgaleta; Santiago Arias; Diego Ramirez. "Gemasolar, The First Tower Thermosolar Commercial Plant With Molten Salt Storage System" (PDF) (Press Release). Torresol Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
  44. ^ Spencer, Dan (2013). Saltpeter:The Mother of Gunpowder. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 256. ISBN 9780199695751.
  45. ^ Peter Watson (2006). Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud. HarperCollins. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-06-093564-1. Archived from the original on 2015-10-17. The first use of a metal tube in this context was made around 1280 in the wars between the Song and the Mongols, where a new term, chong, was invented to describe the new horror...Like paper, it reached the West via the Muslims, in this case the writings of the Andalusian botanist Ibn al-Baytar, who died in Damascus in 1248. The Arabic term for saltpetre is 'Chinese snow' while the Persian usage is 'Chinese salt'.28
  46. ^ Cathal J. Nolan (2006). The age of wars of religion, 1000–1650: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. Volume 1 of Greenwood encyclopedias of modern world wars. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-313-33733-8. Archived from the original on 2014-01-01. Retrieved 2011-11-28. In either case, there is linguistic evidence of Chinese origins of the technology: in Damascus, Arabs called the saltpeter used in making gunpowder "Chinese snow," while in Iran it was called "Chinese salt." Whatever the migratory route |volume= has extra text (help)
  47. ^ Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg (1970). Artillery: its origin, heyday, and decline. Archon Books. p. 123. ISBN 9780208010407. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese Snow and employed it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.
  48. ^ Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg (1963). English artillery, 1326–1716: being the history of artillery in this country prior to the formation of the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Royal Artillery Institution. p. 42. The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese Snow and employed it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.
  49. ^ Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg (1993). Clubs to cannon: warfare and weapons before the introduction of gunpowder (reprint ed.). Barnes & Noble Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-56619-364-1. Retrieved 2011-11-28. The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese snow and used it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.
  50. ^ Partington, J. R. (1960). A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder (illustrated, reprint ed.). JHU Press. p. 335. ISBN 978-0801859540. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
  51. ^ Needham, Joseph; Yu, Ping-Yu (1980). Needham, Joseph (ed.). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts. Volume 5. Contributors Joseph Needham, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0521085731. Retrieved 2014-11-21. |volume= has extra text (help)
  52. ^ "The Straight Dope: Does saltpeter suppress male ardor?". 1989-06-16. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
  53. ^ Richard E. Jones & Kristin H. López (2006). Human Reproductive Biology, Third Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-12-088465-0. Archived from the original on 2016-05-01.
  54. ^ "10 reasons true Americans should watch '1776' this 4th of July". EW.com. Retrieved 2019-08-01.

Bibliography[]

  • Barnum, Dennis W. (December 2003). "Some History of Nitrates". Journal of Chemical Education. 80 (12): 1393. Bibcode:2003JChEd..80.1393B. doi:10.1021/ed080p1393.
  • David Cressy. Saltpeter: The Mother of Gunpowder (Oxford University Press, 2013) 237 pp online review by Robert Tiegs
  • Alan Williams. "The production of saltpeter in the Middle Ages", Ambix, 22 (1975), pp. 125–33. Maney Publishing, ISSN 0002-6980.

External links[]

  • v
  • t
Salts and covalent derivatives of the nitrate ion
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