1951 in spaceflight

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1951 in spaceflight
Viking 7 before its 7 August 1951 launch.jpg
Viking 7 before its 7 August 1951 launch
Rockets
Maiden flightsUnited States Aerobee RTV-A-1a
United States Aerobee RTV-A-1b
Soviet Union R-1B
Soviet Union R-1V
RetirementsUnited States Viking (first model)
United States Aerobee RTV-A-1b
Soviet Union R-1B
Soviet Union R-1V
  • v
  • t

The year 1951 saw extensive exploration of space by the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR) using suborbital rockets. The Soviets launched their first series of biomedical tests to the 100-kilometer (62 mi) boundary of space (as defined by the World Air Sports Federation).[1] Several American agencies launched more than a dozen scientific sounding rocket flights between them. The US Navy launched its Viking sounding rocket for the seventh time since 1949, this time to a record-breaking 136 miles (219 km) in August 1951.

Development also continued by both superpowers on rockets more powerful than the World War Two era German V-2 that had inaugurated the age of spaceflight. The USSR advanced far beyond their R-1 (a V-2 copy) with the deployment of the R-2 rocket, which could carry a ton of explosives twice as far as its predecessor. Though the ambitious Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile was canceled in 1951, the more achievable R-5 missile project was initiated. Both the US Air Force and the US Army initiated their first post-V-2 ballistic missile projects, Atlas for the former and Redstone for the latter.

Space exploration[]

Soviet R-1 missile

United States[]

The US Army, US Air Force, and the Applied Physics Laboratory continued their use of Aerobee on a variety of physics, aeronomy, photography, weather, and biomedical sounding rocket flights; a total of 11 were launched during the year.[2] Two of these comprised the earliest space biomedical missions. Launched by the Air Force, and carrying mice and monkeys, they (along with a third flight in 1952) determined that brief (approx. 15 minutes) exposure to acceleration, reduced gravity, and high altitude cosmic radiation did not have significant negative effects.[3]

The first generation of US Navy-built Viking sounding rockets reached its acme of performance with the flight of Viking 7, the sole Viking launch of 1951. Launched 7 August from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, the rocket set a new world altitude record of 136 miles (219 km).[4]: 167–171, 236 

Soviet Union[]

The R-1, the Soviet Union's first domestically built long-range ballistic missile, was accepted into service in November 1950. In January 1951, cold-weather testing of the R-1 for quality assurance purposes was conducted.[5]: 149, 152  On 1 June, production of the R-1 was centralized and transferred to a former automobile factory in Dnepropetrovsk, and that month,[6] a test series of R-1s was successfully launched to the edge of space, all landing within 5.5 kilometers (3.4 mi) of their targets. Though the R-1, a virtual copy of the now-obsolete V-2,[5]: 119  was not a particularly formidable weapon and posed virtually no threat to the West, it was invaluable in training engineers and missile crews, as well as creating a nascent rocket industry in the Soviet Union.[5]: 152–3 

On 29 January 1951, dogs were carried on one of the winter test flights of the R-1.[2] This was followed in the summer by six R-1s specifically designed and equipped for biomedical flights to determine if their payload dogs could survive the rigors of space travel and be recovered. Three of the missions were successful.[7]

The R-2 missile, the first operational Soviet design to have a separable nose cone, underwent a second test series of thirteen flights in July 1951, experiencing one failure. Accepted for operational service on 27 November 1951,[8] the design had a range of 600 kilometers (370 mi), twice that of the R-1, while maintaining a similar payload of around 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb).[5]: 48–9 

Spacecraft development[]

US Air Force[]

By 1950, the war-head carrying ballistic missile, which in the United States had been eclipsed since World War II by guided missile development, received national priority. In January 1951, the US Air Force's Air Research and Development Command awarded to Consolidated Vultee the contract for Atlas, the nation's first Intercontinental ballistic missile.[9]: 59–61  The Atlas went on to become one of the key boosters in America's crewed and robotic space programs,[10]: 32–39  first orbiting a payload (SCORE) in 1958.[9]: 153, 161–2 

US Army[]

On 15 April 1950, Wernher von Braun and his team of German rocket engineers were transferred from Fort Bliss to Redstone Arsenal in Alabama. In 1951, the Redstone team was tasked with the research and development of guided missiles and the development and testing of free rockets, solid propellants, Jet-Assisted Take-off rockets, and related items, thus making the Army a leading player in America's missile development.[11] Their work led to the production of the Redstone missile, first launched in 1953,[12] versions of which ultimately launched Explorer 1, America's first artificial satellite, in 1958, and Mercury-Redstone 3, America's first human space mission, in 1961.[13]

US Navy[]

In the summer of 1950, the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) team led by Milton Rosen began work on an improved Viking rocket able to reach higher altitudes. The team would achieve increased performance through larger fuel tanks and reduced weight elsewhere on the rocket. Originally planned for launch in 1951, the development of the second generation Viking took two years, and the first of the new rockets would not launch until 6 June 1952.[4]: 172–3, 236 

University of Iowa[]

In January 1951, Dr. James Van Allen, instrumental in the development of the Aerobee rocket, joined the physics department at the State University of Iowa (SUI). Along with University of Chicago graduate Melvin B. Gottlieb and Van Allen's first SUI graduate student, Leslie H. Meredith, they began a high altitude cosmic ray research program using equipment mounted on balloons. Launched from 16 June 1951, though 26 January 1952,[14]: 7–10  this experience set the foundation for balloon-launched sounding rockets, which would first breach the boundary of space in 1954.[14]: 38 

Soviet Union[]

From 1947, the German émigré-designed G-1 (or R-10) missile had competed with the Soviet-designed R-2 for limited engineering and production staff, the latter winning out by the end of 1949. With the project stalled for lack of resources and government interest, the Soviets terminated all work by the German specialists in October 1950. In December 1951, the first of the specialists were repatriated to East Germany (a process that the Soviets completed in November 1953).[5]: 69–70 

The draft plan for the ambitious 3,000-kilometer (1,900 mi) range R-3 had been approved on 7 December 1949,[5]: 67  but was canceled on 20 October 1951, other designs proving more useful and achievable.[5]: 275–6  One of them was the R-5 missile, able to carry the same payload as the R-1 and R-2 but over a distance of 1,200 kilometers (750 mi)[5]: 242  (the other being the R-11, a tactical missile half the size of the R-1 but with the same payload).[15] The R-5's conceptual design was completed by 30 October 1951.[16]: 97 

Launches[]

January[]

January launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
18 January
20:14 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesGE / US Army
Naval Research Laboratory Suborbital Solar ultraviolet, x-ray, chemical release 18 January Launch failure
Project Hermes launch, Apogee: 1.6 kilometers (0.99 mi)[2]
22 January
22:55 		United StatesAerobee RTV-N-10 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Navy
Applied Physics Laboratory Suborbital Aeronomy 22 January Successful
Apogee: 88.5 kilometers (55.0 mi)[2]
25 January
15:00 		United StatesAerobee RTV-N-10 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Navy
Applied Physics Laboratory Suborbital Ozone aeronomy 25 January Successful
Apogee: 90.1 kilometers (56.0 mi)[2]
29 January Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 29 January Successful
Carried dogs[2]
30 January Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 30 January Successful[2]
31 January Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 31 January Successful[2]

February[]

February launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
1 February Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 1 February Successful[2]
2 February Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 2 February Successful[2]
6 February
17:20 		United StatesAerobee RTV-N-10 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Navy
Applied Physics Laboratory Suborbital Earth photography 6 February Successful
Apogee: 98.2 kilometers (61.0 mi)[2]

March[]

March launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
9 March
03:16 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesGE / US Army
United StatesBlossom IVE Air Materiel Command Suborbital Ionospheric, solar, aeronomy 9 March Launch failure
Project Hermes launch, apogee: 3 kilometers (1.9 mi)[2]
28 March
23:14 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
Air Research and Development Command Suborbital Aeronomy 28 March Successful
Apogee: 68 kilometers (42 mi)[2]

April[]

April launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
12 April
17:26 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Solar radiation 12 April Partial failure
Apogee: 20 kilometers (12 mi)[17]
18 April
18:39 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
United StatesAeromed 1 ARDC Suborbital Biomedical 18 April Successful
First biomedical Aerobee mission, carried monkey; apogee: 61.2 kilometers (38.0 mi)[2]

May[]

May launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
29 May
19:46 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Ionospheric 29 May Launch failure
Apogee: 3.7 kilometers (2.3 mi)[17]

June[]

June launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
8 June
00:11 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Solar X-ray, aeronomy 8 June Successful
Apogee: 88.5 kilometers (55.0 mi)[17]
8 June
01:18 		United StatesAerobee XASR-SC-1 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Army
US Army Signal Corps Suborbital Aeronomy 8 June Launch failure
Apogee: 6.4 kilometers (4.0 mi)[17]
9 June
06:11 		United StatesAerobee XASR-SC-1 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Army
USASC Suborbital Aeronomy 9 June Successful
Apogee: 67 kilometers (42 mi)[17]
13 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 13 June Successful[2]
14 June
13:48 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesGE / US Army
NRL Suborbital Solar UV / X-ray 14 June Launch failure
Project Hermes launch, apogee: 0 kilometers (0 mi)[2]
14 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 14 June Successful[2]
18 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 18 June Successful[2]
19 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 19 June Successful[2]
20 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 20 June Successful[2]
22 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 22 June Successful[2]
23 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 23 June Successful[2]
24 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 24 June Successful[2]
25 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 25 June Successful[2]
26 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 26 June Successful[2]
27 June Soviet UnionR-1 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 27 June Successful[2]
28 June
21:43 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesGE / US Army
United StatesBlossom IVF ARDC Suborbital Solar / Aeronomy 28 June Launch failure
Final project Hermes launch, apogee: 5.8 kilometers (3.6 mi)[2]

July[]

July launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
2 July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 2 July
First of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Second of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Third of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Fourth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Fifth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Sixth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Seventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Eighth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Ninth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Tenth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Eleventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test Same day
Twelfth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
22 July Soviet UnionR-1V Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Biological 22 July Successful
Maiden flight of the R-1V; carried dogs Dezik and Zhegan which were recovered[2]
25 July
16:26 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Airglow research 25 July Successful
Apogee: 71.3 kilometers (44.3 mi)[17]
27 July Soviet UnionR-2 Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Missile test 27 July
Last of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 
29 July Soviet UnionR-1B Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Biological 29 July Launch failure
Maiden flight of the R-1B; electrical failure, no payload recovery; carried dogs did not survive[2]

August[]

August launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
7 August
16:36 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Ionospheric 7 August Successful
Apogee: 83.5 kilometers (51.9 mi)[17]
7 August
18:00 		United StatesViking (first model) United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 – Army Launch Area 1 United StatesUS Navy
United StatesViking 7 NRL Suborbital Ionospheric / Solar 7 August Successful
Final flight of the first model Viking, apogee: 219 kilometers (136 mi)[18]
15 August Soviet UnionR-1B Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Solar UV / Biological 15 August Successful
Carried dogs, recovered[2]
19 August Soviet UnionR-1V Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Biological 19 August Successful
Final flight of the R-1V; carried dogs, recovered[2]
22 August
19:00 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesUS Army
US Army Suborbital Altitude test 22 August Successful
First all Army team after General Electric's contract concluded; apogee: 213.9 kilometers (132.9 mi)[2]
28 August Soviet UnionR-1B Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Biological 28 August Successful[2]
30 August
22:40 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1b United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Rocket performance test 30 August Successful
Maiden (and only) flight of the RTV-A-1b, apogee: 75.7 kilometers (47.0 mi)[17]

September[]

September launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
3 September Soviet UnionR-1B Soviet UnionKapustin Yar Soviet UnionOKB-1
OKB-1 Suborbital Biological 3 September Successful
Final flight of the R-1B; carried dogs, recovered[2]
13 September
11:37 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Aeronomy 13 September Successful
Apogee: 75.7 kilometers (47.0 mi)[17]
20 September
16:31 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1 United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
United StatesAeromed 2 ARDC Suborbital Biomedical 20 September Successful
Carried monkey, Yorick/Albert VI, and 11 mice, all recovered; apogee: 70.8 kilometers (44.0 mi)[17]
27 September
00:06 		United StatesAerobee XASR-SC-1 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Army
USASC Suborbital Aeronomy 27 September Successful
Apogee: 68.9 kilometers (42.8 mi)[17]

October[]

October launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
17 October
18:17 		United StatesAerobee RTV-A-1a United StatesHolloman LC-A United StatesUS Air Force
ARDC Suborbital Ionospheric 17 October Successful
Maiden flight of the RTV-A-1a, apogee: 114.3 kilometers (71.0 mi)
29 October
21:04 		Nazi GermanyV-2 United StatesWhite Sands LC-33 United StatesUS Army
US Army Suborbital Aeronomy 29 October Successful
Apogee: 141.3 kilometers (87.8 mi)[2]

November[]

November launches
Date and time (UTC) Rocket Flight number Launch site LSP
Payload Operator Orbit Function Decay (UTC) Outcome
Remarks
1 November
09:45 		United StatesAerobee XASR-SC-1 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Army
USASC Suborbital Aeronomy 1 November Successful
Apogee: 66 kilometers (41 mi)[17]
3 November
00:35 		United StatesAerobee XASR-SC-1 United StatesWhite Sands LC-35 United StatesUS Army
USASC Suborbital Aeronomy 3 November Successful
Apogee: 82.4 kilometers (51.2 mi)[17]

Suborbital launch summary[]

By country[]

United States: 26Soviet Union: 35Circle frame.svg
Launches by country
Country Launches Successes Failures Partial
failures
 United States 26 19 6 1
 Soviet Union 35 33 1 1

By rocket[]

6
12
18
24
30
V-2
Aerobee
  •   V-2 (American)
  •   Viking (first model)
  •   Aerobee RTV-N-10
  •   Aerobee XASR-SC-1
  •   Aerobee RTV-A-1
  •   Aerobee RTV-A-1b
  •   Aerobee RTV-A-1a
  •   R-1
  •   R-1V
  •   R-1B
  •   R-2
Launches by rocket
Rocket Country Launches Successes Failures Partial
failures 		Remarks
V-2  United States 6 2 4 0
Viking (first model)  United States 1 1 0 0 Retired
Aerobee RTV-N-10  United States 3 3 0 0
Aerobee XASR-SC-1  United States 5 4 1 0
Aerobee RTV-A-1  United States 9 7 1 1
Aerobee RTV-A-1b  United States 1 1 0 0 Maiden flight, retired
Aerobee RTV-A-1a  United States 1 1 0 0 Maiden flight
R-1  Soviet Union 16 16 0 0
R-1V  Soviet Union 2 2 0 0 Maiden flight, retired
R-1B  Soviet Union 4 3 1 0 Maiden flight, retired
R-2  Soviet Union 13 12 0 1

See also[]

References[]

Generic references:
  • view
  • talk

RocketSunIcon.svg Spaceflight portal
  • Bergin, Chris. "NASASpaceFlight.com".
  • Clark, Stephen. "Spaceflight Now".
  • Kelso, T.S. "Satellite Catalog (SATCAT)". CelesTrak.
  • Krebs, Gunter. "Chronology of Space Launches".
  • Kyle, Ed. "Space Launch Report".
  • McDowell, Jonathan. "Jonathan's Space Report".
  • Pietrobon, Steven. "Steven Pietrobon's Space Archive".
  • Wade, Mark. "Encyclopedia Astronautica".
  • Webb, Brian. "Southwest Space Archive".
  • Zak, Anatoly. "Russian Space Web".
  • "ISS Calendar". Spaceflight 101.
  • "NSSDCA Master Catalog". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
  • "Space Calendar". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
  • "Space Information Center". JAXA.
  • "Хроника освоения космоса" [Chronicle of space exploration]. CosmoWorld (in Russian).

Footnotes[]

  1. ^ Paul Voosen (24 July 2018). "Outer space may have just gotten a bit closer". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau8822. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Mark Wade. "1951 Chronology". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
  3. ^ Wayne O. Mattson; Martyn D. Tagg (June 1995). We Develop Missiles not Air! (PDF). Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico: Legacy Resource Management Program, Air Combat Command USAF. pp. 45–52.
  4. ^ a b Milton W. Rosen (1955). The Viking Rocket Story. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 317524549.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Boris Chertok (June 2006). Rockets and People, Volume II: Creating a Rocket Industry. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 946818748.
  6. ^ Mark Wade. "R-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  7. ^ Chris Gebhardt (20 September 2016). "Aerobee-19: 65 years after animal flight that paved the way for Project Mercury". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
  8. ^ Mark Wade. "R-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  9. ^ a b John L. Chapman (1960). Atlas The Story of a Missile. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 492591218.
  10. ^ Will Eisner (1962). America's Space Vehicles A pictorial review. London: Oak Tree Press, Ltd. OCLC 916575496.
  11. ^ "Installation History 1950 - 1952". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  12. ^ "Installation History 1953 - 1955". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  13. ^ "Redstone Missile". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  14. ^ a b George Ludwig (2011). Opening Space Research. Washington D.C.: geopress. OCLC 845256256.
  15. ^ Mark Wade. "R-11". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Asif A. Siddiqi. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 1001823253.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Mark Wade. "Aerobee". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  18. ^ Mark Wade. "Viking Sounding Rocket". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 January 2021.


Retrieved from ""