Llanos Basin

Llanos Basin
Cuenca Llanos
The Llanos Basin in Puerto López, Meta
Coordinates	05°24′00″N 71°40′00″W / 5.40000°N 71.66667°W / 5.40000; -71.66667Coordinates: 05°24′00″N 71°40′00″W / 5.40000°N 71.66667°W / 5.40000; -71.66667
Etymology	Spanish: "eastern plains"
Region	Orinoquía
Country	Colombia
State(s)	Arauca, Boyacá, Casanare, Cundinamarca, Guainía, Guaviare, Meta, Norte de Santander
Cities	Villavicencio, Yopal
Characteristics
On/Offshore	Onshore
Boundaries	Colombia-Venezuela border (N), Guiana Shield (E), Vaupés Arch (S), Serranía de la Macarena (SW), Eastern Ranges (W)
Part of	Andean foreland basins
Area	96,000 km2 (37,000 sq mi)
Hydrology
River(s)	Orinoco watershed Main rivers: Arauca, Meta, Guaviare, Vichada
Geology
Basin type	Foreland on rift basin[note 1]
Plate	South American[note 3]
Orogeny	Break-up of Pangea (Mesozoic) Andean (Cenozoic)
Age	Paleozoic or Jurassic[note 2] to Holocene
Stratigraphy	Stratigraphy
Faults	Eastern (W, bounding), Chichimene & Meta
Field(s)	Rubiales, Caño Limón, many more

The Llanos Basin (Spanish: Cuenca Llanos) or Eastern Llanos Basin (Spanish: Cuenca de los Llanos Orientales) is a major sedimentary basin of 96,000 square kilometres (37,000 sq mi) in northeastern Colombia. The onshore foreland on Mesozoic rift basin covers the departments of Arauca, Casanare and Meta and parts of eastern Boyacá and Cundinamarca, western Guainía, northern Guaviare and southeasternmost Norte de Santander. The northern boundary is formed by the border with Venezuela, where the basin grades into the .

Description[]

The northeastern part of Colombia is characterized by its wavy plains, called Llanos Orientales, as part of the bigger Llanos that extend into Venezuela. The landscape is similar to a savanna, it is poor in trees, and located between the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes in the west, the Vaupés Arch in the south and the Guiana Shield in the east.^[1]

Geologically, the Llanos Basin underlies this typical landscape of the Llanos. An area where transport occurs mostly by small boats along the many rivers and the "buses of the Llanos", the Douglas DC-3 planes. The basin covers an area of 96,000 square kilometres (37,000 sq mi) and contains a stratigraphic column from the Paleozoic to recent.^[2] Several of the formations in the basins are source rocks (Gachetá, , ), reservoir rocks (, , Guadalupe and the uneven numbered members of Carbonera). Seals are formed by the shaly intervals (even numbered) of the Carbonera Formation, Los Cuervos, and .^[3]

The basin is the main petroleum producing basin of Colombia, with four of the nations biggest oil fields located in the Llanos Basin. Major fields are Rubiales, Colombia's biggest and most recent giant discovery sealed by a complex of hydrodynamic processes, and Caño Limón, at the border with Venezuela.

Major concerns in the basin for the production of petroleum are biodegradation, , capacity and water flow.

Hydrography[]

The Llanos Basin is crossed by numerous rivers, all belonging to the Orinoco watershed. From north to south:

Flora and fauna[]

Fauna[]

Among other species, (Pseudopaludicola llanera) is endemic to the Llanos, with the species epithet referring to the plains.^[4] Also the whip scorpion Mastigoproctus colombianus is reported from the Llanos Basin.^[5]

Geodynamic situation[]

The country of Colombia spreads out over six tectonic plates, clockwise from north:

1. Caribbean Plate
2. North Andes Plate
3. South American Plate
4. Malpelo Plate
5. Coiba Plate
6. Panama Plate

The Llanos Basin is situated entirely on the South American Plate, bordering the North Andean Block or North Andean microplate in the west. The basin is one of three Colombian basins on the South American Plate, to the south the and to the southeast the . The northern boundary of the Llanos Basin is formed by the Colombia-Venezuela border where the basin grades into the on the Venezuelan side. The , representing the Colombian portion of the larger Maracaibo Basin borders the Llanos Basin in the northwest and the western boundary is formed by the foothills (Piedemonte) of the , the sedimentary basin covering the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes.

Tectonics[]

The basin is bound to the west by the Eastern Frontal Fault System, a 921.4 kilometres (572.5 mi) long fault system connecting the North Andes and South American Plates and thus the and the Llanos Basin. The fault system has an average strike of 042.1±19, but this orientation varies greatly along its course. The , , , 1967, , and 2008 earthquakes were all caused by fault movement as part of the system.^[6]

Basin history[]

The tectonic history of the Llanos Basin, a foreland basin formed on top of Mesozoic rift basins, Paleozoic metasediments and Precambrian basement underlain by continental crust, goes back to the Early Jurassic.

The Andean orogeny, represented by the tectonic uplift of the Colombian Eastern Ranges and its northern extension, the Serranía del Perijá, caused tilting and uplift in the Llanos Basin. During the Andean orogenic phase, the paleotemperatures in the basin dropped considerably; in the Baja Guajira area from 115 °C (239 °F) in the Early Miocene to 70 °C (158 °F) in the Late Miocene.^[7] In the Late Miocene to Pliocene, the major faults to the southwest of the Cocinetas Basin, the Oca and Bucaramanga-Santa Marta Faults were tectonically active.^[8]

Basement[]

The stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin ranges, depending on the definition from either Jurassic or Paleozoic to recent. The basement is formed by the westernmost extensions of the Guiana Shield. Remnants of these Precambrian formations are found as inselbergs in the far east of Colombia (Cerros de Mavecure), in the Serranía de la Macarena to the southwest of the basin and in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete to the southeast.

The Proterozoic crystalline rocks are overlain by metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Devonian. Younger and contemporaneous Paleozoic deposits are only found in the subsurface and in regional correlative units as the Floresta and Cuche Formations of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense to the direct northwest and the Río Cachirí Group of the Cesar-Ranchería Basin farther northwest of the Llanos Basin.

The units found in the Llanos Basin pertain to the and comprise the , and the .^[9]

Stratigraphy[]

Stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin and surrounding provinces

Ma	Age	Paleomap	Regional events			proximal Llanos	distal Llanos			Environments	Maximum thickness	Petroleum geology	Notes
0.01	Holocene		Holocene volcanism Seismic activity	alluvium								Overburden
1	Pleistocene		Pleistocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 Glaciations		Soatá Sabana					Alluvial to fluvial (Guayabo)	550 m (1,800 ft) (Guayabo)		[10][11][12][13]
2.6	Pliocene		Pliocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 GABI		Subachoque
5.3	Messinian		Andean orogeny 3 Foreland		Marichuela				Honda				[12][14]
13.5	Langhian		Regional flooding		hiatus					Lacustrine (León)	400 m (1,300 ft) (León)	Seal	[13][15]
16.2	Burdigalian		Miocene inundations Andean orogeny 2							Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C1)	850 m (2,790 ft) (Carbonera)	Reservoir	[14][13]
17.3										Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2)		Seal
19										Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3)		Reservoir
21	Early Miocene		Pebas wetlands						Barzalosa	Distal fluvio-deltaic (C4)		Seal
23	Late Oligocene		Andean orogeny 1 Foredeep							Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C5)		Reservoir	[11][14]
25										Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6)		Seal
28	Early Oligocene									Proximal deltaic-marine (C7)		Reservoir	[11][14][16]
32	Oligo-Eocene				Usme		onlap			Marine-deltaic (C8)		Seal Source	[16]
35	Late Eocene									Coastal (Mirador)	240 m (790 ft) (Mirador)	Reservoir	[13][17]
40	Middle Eocene				Regadera				hiatus
45
50	Early Eocene									Deltaic (Los Cuervos)	260 m (850 ft) (Los Cuervos)	Seal Source	[13][17]
55	Late Paleocene		PETM 2000 ppm CO2		Bogotá
60	Early Paleocene		SALMA	Barco	Guaduas					Fluvial (Barco)	225 m (738 ft) (Barco)	Reservoir	[10][11][14][13][18]
65	Maastrichtian		KT extinction		Guadalupe					Deltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe)	750 m (2,460 ft) (Guadalupe)	Reservoir	[10][13]
72	Campanian		End of rifting										[13][19]
83	Santonian							Villeta/Güagüaquí
86	Coniacian
89	Turonian		Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event		Chipaque	Gachetá	hiatus			Restricted marine (all)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Gachetá)	Source	[10][13][20]
93	Cenomanian		Rift 2
100	Albian				Une	Une		Caballos		Deltaic (Une)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Une)	Reservoir	[14][20]
113	Aptian				Fómeque					Open marine (Fómeque)	800 m (2,600 ft) (Fómeque)	Source (Fóm)	[11][13][21]
125	Barremian		High biodiversity		Paja					Shallow to open marine (Paja)	940 m (3,080 ft) (Paja)	Reservoir	[10]
129	Hauterivian		Rift 1		Las Juntas	hiatus				Deltaic (Las Juntas)	910 m (2,990 ft) (Las Juntas)	Reservoir (LJun)	[10]
133	Valanginian				Macanal Rosablanca					Restricted marine (Macanal)	2,935 m (9,629 ft) (Macanal)	Source (Mac)	[11][22]
140	Berriasian			Girón
145	Tithonian		Break-up of Pangea		Arcabuco					Alluvial, fluvial (Buenavista)	110 m (360 ft) (Buenavista)	"Jurassic"	[14][23]
150	Early-Mid Jurassic		Passive margin 2	La Quinta	Noreán	hiatus				Coastal tuff (La Quinta)	100 m (330 ft) (La Quinta)		[24]
201	Late Triassic												[14]
235	Early Triassic		Pangea		hiatus							"Paleozoic"
250	Permian
300	Late Carboniferous		Famatinian orogeny						()				[25]
340	Early Carboniferous		Fossil fish Romer's gap		Cuche (355-385)	()				Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche)	900 m (3,000 ft) (Cuche)
360	Late Devonian		Passive margin 1	Río Cachirí (360-419)					()	Alluvial-fluvial-reef (Farallones)	2,400 m (7,900 ft) (Farallones)		[22][26][27][28][29]
390	Early Devonian		High biodiversity	Floresta (387-400)						Shallow marine (Floresta)	600 m (2,000 ft) (Floresta)
410	Late Silurian
425	Early Silurian			hiatus
440	Late Ordovician		Rich fauna in Bolivia	(450-490)		()
470	Early Ordovician		First fossils		(>470±22)	()		()	() Venado (470-475)				[30][31][32]
488	Late Cambrian		Regional intrusions	(490-515)	()	()		(490-590)	()				[33][34]
515	Early Cambrian		Cambrian explosion										[32][35]
542	Ediacaran		Break-up of Rodinia		pre-Quetame		post-Parguaza		()	Yellow: allochthonous basement (Chibcha Terrane) Green: autochthonous basement (Río Negro-Juruena Province)		Basement	[36][37]
600	Neoproterozoic		Cariri Velhos orogeny	(600-1400)				pre-Guaviare					[33]
800			Snowball Earth										[38]
1000	Mesoproterozoic		Sunsás orogeny			(1000)			(1030-1100)				[39][40][41][42]
1300						pre-Ariarí	(1300-1400)		(1180-1550)				[43]
1400				pre-Bucaramanga									[44]
1600	Paleoproterozoic						(1500-1700)		pre-Garzón				[45]
1800							(1800)						[43][45]
1950							pre-Mitú						[43]
2200			Columbia
2530	Archean												[43]
3100			Kenorland
Sources

Legend

• group
• important formation
• fossiliferous formation
• minor formation
• (age in Ma)
• proximal Llanos (Medina)^{[note 4]}
• distal Llanos (Saltarin 1A well)^{[note 5]}

Paleozoic[]

Cambro-Ordovician

Pre-Devonian

Devonian

Jurassic[]

Petroleum geology[]

The Llanos Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon basin of Colombia, hosting well-known petroleum deposits as Caño Limón, Rubiales and other fields. Nine of the twenty most producing oil fields of Colombia are situated in the Llanos Basin.

Fields[]

Based on data released in March 2018, Colombia is the 21st oil producer in the world. Daily production dropped in 2017 to 854.121 thousand barrels per day (135.7944×10^³ m³/d).^[50] In 2016, twenty oilfields produced 66% of all oil of Colombia, listed below in bold.^[51] The total proven reserves of Colombia were 1,665.489 million barrels (264.7916×10^⁶ m³) in 2016.^[52]

Major oil fields in the Llanos Basin are:^[53]

Major oil and gas fields of the Llanos Basin

Name	Map	Location	Operator	Reservoirs	Reserves Production (2016)	Notes
Rubiales		Puerto Gaitán Meta	Ecopetrol		4,380 million bbl (696 million m3) 132.000 kbbl/d (20.9863×10^3 m3/d)
		Castilla la Nueva Meta	Ecopetrol	Gachetá Une	452 million bbl (71.9 million m3) 121.363 kbbl/d (19.2952×10^3 m3/d)	[54][55]
		Acacias Meta	Ecopetrol	Guadalupe Gachetá Une	74.052 kbbl/d (11.7733×10^3 m3/d)	[56][57]
		Puerto Gaitán Meta			613 million bbl (97.5 million m3) 46.557 kbbl/d (7.4020×10^3 m3/d)	[58][59]
Caño Limón		Puerto Rondón Arauca	Ecopetrol		20.930 kbbl/d (3.3276×10^3 m3/d)	[60]
		Cabuyaro Meta			11.625 kbbl/d (1.8482×10^3 m3/d)
		Puerto Gaitán Meta			11.228 kbbl/d (1.7851×10^3 m3/d)
		Puerto Rondón Arauca	OXY		10.459 kbbl/d (1.6628×10^3 m3/d)	[59]
		Villanueva Casanare			7.477 kbbl/d (1.1887×10^3 m3/d)
		Aguazul Casanare	Ecopetrol		5.358 kbbl/d (851.9 m3/d)
		Villavicencio Meta	Ecopetrol	Gachetá Une
		Arauca Arauca	Ecopetrol
		Tauramena Casanare	Ecopetrol	Guadalupe

• Other fields^[53]
  • Caño Verde
  • Chaparrito
  • Concesión
  • Corcel
  • Cravo Sur
  • La Gloria
  • Santiago
  • Trinidad
  • Valdivia

Mining[]

Mining activities in the Llanos Basin are restricted to certain areas, resulting in less conflicts, more common with indigenous peoples in the Amazonian part of Colombia.^[61]

• gold^[62]
• halite^[63]
• coal^[64]

In San José del Guaviare platinum is mined.^[65]

Mining in the Llanos Basin and surrounding areas

Resources	Map	Department	Municipality	Mine	Notes
halite		Meta	Restrepo	Upín	[63][66]
gold			Puerto Rico		[62]
		Arauca	Arauca
gold		Guaviare	San José del Guaviare
platinum, iron, albite, andradite (var: melanite), 'apatite', arfvedsonite, 'biotite', calcite, cancrinite, epidote, fluorite, 'garnet', microcline, 'monazite', nepheline, siderite, titanite, zircon					[65][67]
coal		Casanare	Recetor		[64]

Paleontology[]

Compared to many fossiliferous formations in Colombia, the Llanos Basin has been lean in fossil content. Most of the basin stratigraphy is only known from wells.

Paleozoic outcrops surrounding and perforating the planar geography have provided fossils dating back to the Cambrian; the and .

Several fossiliferous formations of contemporaneous depositional environments have provided many unique fossils indicative of paleoclimatic conditions; turtle fossils were described from Los Cuervos in the Cesar-Ranchería Basin, and the Mirador Formation in the direct northwest of the Llanos Basin has provided many fossil flora.^[68]

Other correlative units with surrounding basins

• Guayabo - Sabana and Soatá, Ware, Honda
• León - Honda
• Carbonera - Barzalosa, Castilletes, Jimol
• Mirador - Bogotá - Etayoa
• Los Cuervos - Cerrejón - Titanoboa, crocodylians, turtles, flora
• Los Cuervos - Guaduas - fossil flora
• Gachetá - Chipaque - oysters
• Gachetá - - many
• Une - Hiló - ammonites
• Farallones Group - Floresta and Cuche

See also[]

• Sedimentary basins of Colombia
  • Cesar-Ranchería Basin
  • Cocinetas Basin
  • Middle Magdalena Valley
• Neuquén Basin, major petroleum producing basin of Argentina
• Santos Basin, major petroleum producing basin of Brazil
• Eastern Venezuela Basin, primary petroleum producing basin of Venezuela

Sources[]

Notes[]

References[]

Bibliography[]

General[]

• Barrero, Dario; Andrés Pardo; Carlos A. Vargas, and Juan F. Martínez. 2007. Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, Boundaries and Petroleum Geology, a New Proposal, 1–92. .
• García González, Mario; Ricardo Mier Umaña; Luis Enrique Cruz Guevara, and Mauricio Vásquez. 2009. Informe Ejecutivo - evaluación del potencial hidrocarburífero de las cuencas colombianas, 1-219. Universidad Industrial de Santander.

Hydrodynamics[]

• Mora, Andrés; Ricardo Andrés Gómez; Camilo Díaz; Victor Caballero; Mauricio Parra; Carlos Villamizar; Álvaro Lasso; Richard A. Ketcham, and Felipe González Penagos, John Rico and Juan Pablo Arias Martínez. 2019. Water flow, oil biodegradation, and hydrodynamic traps in the Llanos Basin, Colombia. AAPG Bulletin 103. 1225-1264. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Duarte, Edward; German Bayona; Carlos ; Mauricio Parra; Ingrid Romero, and Josué Alejandro Mora. 2017. Identificación de los máximos eventos de inundación marina Miocenos y su uso en la correlación y análisis de la cuenca de antepaís de los Llanos Orientales, Colombia. Boletín de Geología 39. 19-40. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Bartha, Attila; Nelly De Nicolais; Vinod Sharma; S.K. Roy; Rajiv Srivastava; Andrew E. Pomerantz; Milton Sanclemente; Wilmar Pérez, and Robert K. Nelson, Christopher M. Reddy, Jonas Gros, J. Samuel Arey, Jaron Lelijveld, Sharad Dubey, Diego Tortella, Thomas Hantschel, Kenneth E. Peters and Oliver C. Mullins. 2015. Combined Petroleum System Modeling and Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography To Improve Understanding of the Crude Oil Chemistry in the Llanos Basin, Colombia. Energy & Fuels, American Chemical Society 29. 4755-4767. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Gómez Galarza, Yohaney; Franklin Yoris; Javier Rodríguez; Fredy Portillo, and Ysidro Araujo. 2010. Aspectos hidrodinámicos, estructurales y estratigráficos del Campo Rubiales. Geo Petróleo 9. 1-28. Accessed 2017-06-07.
• Gómez, A.; C. ; M. Parra, and A. Mora. 2009. Huesser Horizon: A lake and marine incursion in Northwestern South America during the Early Miocene. Palaios 24. 199-210. Accessed 2019-10-26.

Tectonics[]

• Paris, Gabriel; Michael N. Machette; Richard L. Dart, and Kathleen M. Haller. 2000a. Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Colombia and its Offshore Regions, 1–66. USGS. Accessed 2017-09-18.
• Paris, Gabriel; Michael N. Machette; Richard L. Dart, and Kathleen M. Haller. 2000b. Map of Quaternary Faults and Folds of Colombia and Its Offshore Regions, 1. USGS. Accessed 2017-09-18.

Petroleum[]

• Martínez Sánchez, Dilan, and Giovanny Jiménez. 2019. Hydraulic fracturing considerations: Insights from analogue models, and its viability in Colombia. 23. 5-15. Accessed 2019-10-26. ISSN 1794-6190
• Vargas Jiménez, Carlos A. 2012. Evaluating total Yet-to-Find hydrocarbon volume in Colombia. 16. 1–290.
• , Jairo; Oscar J. Arévalo, and Hardany Castillo. 2009. Cuencas Catatumbo, Cesar – Ranchería, Cordillera Oriental, Llanos Orientales, Valle Medio y Superior del Magdalena, 1–65. . Accessed 2017-06-14.
• Piedrahita, Carlos, and Clara L. Montaña. 2007. Methodology implemented for the 3D-Seismic modelling using GoCad and NORSAR 3D Software applied to complex areas in the Llanos foothills. 11. 35-43. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Hernández Pardo, Orlando; Ralph R.B. von Frese, and Jeong Woo Kim. 2007. Crustal thickness variations and seismicity of northwestern South America. 11. 81-94. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• N., N. 2006. Cuenca Llanos Orientales - Estudio Integrado - Crudos Pesados, 1-10. . Accessed 2017-06-07.

Paleontology[]

• , Carlos A., and D.L. Dilcher. 2001. Middle Paleogene palynology of Central Colombia, South America: A study of pollen and spores from tropical latitudes. Palaeontographica Abteilung B 258. 87-213. Accessed 2019-10-26.

Reports[]

• Pinto Valderrama, Jorge Eduardo; José Pedro Mora Ortiz; Gloria Reátiga Tarazona; Jorge Alberto Rey Pilonieta; Silvia Johana Toloza Hormiga; Diego Andrés Torres Coronado; David Ricardo Vargas Mojica, and Cristian Julián Zafra Manrique. 2010. Geología del Piedemonte Llanero en la Cordillera Oriental, departamentos de Arauca y Casanare, 1-64. INGEOMINAS & Universidad Industrial de Santander. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Terraza, Roberto; Diana Montoya; Germán Reyes; Giovanni Moreno; Jaime Fúquen; Eliana Torres Jaimes; Myriam López Cardona; Álvaro Nivia Guevara, and Fernando Etayo Serna. 2013. Geología de la Plancha 229 - Gachalá - 1:100,000, 1–296. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Patiño, Alejandro; Jaime Fuquen; Julián Ramos; Andrea Pedraza; Leonardo Ceballos; Lyda Pinzón; Yadira Jerónimo; Leidy Álvarez, and Andrea Torres. 2011. Cartografía geológica de la Plancha 247 - Cáqueza - 1:100,000, . INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Acosta, Jorge E., and Carlos E. Ulloa. 2002. Mapa geológico del Departamento de Cundinamarca 1:250,000 - Memoria Explicativa, 1–108. INGEOMINAS.
• Pulido, Orlando, and Luz Stella Gómez. 2001. Geología de la Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000, 1–52. INGEOMINAS.

Maps[]

• ANH, .. 2017. Mapa de Tierras, 1. . Accessed 2018-06-02.

Departmental

• Reyes, Germán, and Ana Milena Cardozo. 1999. Mapa Geológico de Arauca 1:250,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.
• Acosta, Jorge; Carlos Ulloa; Pilar García, and Orlando Solano. 1999. Mapa Geológico de Cundinamarca, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.
• Rodríguez, Antonio José. 2002. Mapa Geológico del Meta 1:500,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.

Local

• Fúquen, Jaime; Leonardo Ceballos; Andrea Pedraza, and Edwin Marín. 2010. Plancha 99 - Villa del Rosario - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2018-06-01.
• Royero, José María; J. Zambrano; Rommel Daconte; H. Mendoza, and Rodrigo Vargas. 1999. Plancha 111 - Toledo - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Daconte B., Rommel, and Rosalba Salinas E. 1982. Plancha 122 - Río Cobugón - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2018-06-01.
• Vargas, Rodrigo; Alfonso Arias; Luis Jaramillo, and Noel Tellez. 1984. Plancha 136 - Málaga - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Camilo Dávila; Francisco González; Eduardo Parra; Claudia Chaquea; Carolina Ojeda; Carlos Q.; Valentina Espinel, and José A. Lancheros. 2011. Plancha 139 - Betoyes - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Camilo Dávila; Francisco González; Eduardo Parra; Claudia Chaquea; Carolina Ojeda; Carlos Q.; Valentina Espinel, and José A. Lancheros. 2011. Plancha 155 - Puerto Rondón - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Ulloa, Carlos E.; Erasmo Rodríguez, and Ricardo Escovar. 1998. Plancha 192 - Laguna de Tota - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Terraza, Roberto; Giovanni Moreno; José A. Buitrago; Adrián Pérez, and Diana María Montoya. 2010. Plancha 210 - Guateque - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Buitrago, José Alberto; Roberto Terraza M., and Fernando Etayo. 1998. Plancha 228 - Santafé de Bogotá Noreste - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Ulloa, Carlos E; Ricardo Escovar, and Adolfo H. Pacheco. 2009. Plancha 230 - Monterrey - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Acosta, Jorge; Juan Carlos Calcedo, and Carlos Ulloa. 1999. Plancha 265 - Icononzo - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Pulido, Orlando; Luz Stella Gómez, and Pedro Marín. 1998. Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Duarte, Rafael; Mauricio Moreno; Carlos Julio Morales; Henry Villegas; Sonia Alvarado; Milena Téllez; Sonia Pacheco, and Nadia Rojas. 2010. Plancha 267 - Pachaquiaro - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H. 2015. Plancha 284 - Santana - 1:100,000, 1. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2018-06-01.

Further reading[]

• Bally, A.W., and S. Snelson. 1980. Realms of subsidence. Canadian Society for Petroleum Geology Memoir 6. 9–94.
• Kingston, D.R.; C.P. Dishroon, and P.A. Williams. 1983. Global Basin Classification System. AAPG Bulletin 67. 2175–2193. Accessed 2017-06-23.
• Klemme, H.D. 1980. Petroleum Basins - Classifications and Characteristics. Journal of Petroleum Geology 3. 187–207. Accessed 2017-06-23.